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BRITISH 


MANLY    EXERCISES 


ROWING  AND  SAILING 

ARE   NOW  FIRST    DESCRIBED  ; 
AND 

RIDING  AND  DRIVING 

ARE  FOR  THE  FIRST  TIME  GIVEN  IN  A  WORK  OF  THIS  KIND) 

As  well  as  the-  usual  subjects  of 

WALKING,  I  BALANCING,  1  WRESTLING, 

RUNNING,  I  SKATING,  |  BOXING, 

LEAPING.  I  CLIMBING,  I  TRAINING. 

A-AULTING,  1  SWIMMING,  |        &c.  &c.  &c. 

BY    DONALD    WALKER. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

KEY  AND  BIDDLE,  23  MINOR-ST. 

1835. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


The  title  of  this  work  expresses  its  most  striking 
peculiarity — in  giving  an  account  of  Rowing 
and  Sailing,  for  the  first  time  in  any  work,  and 
introducing  Riding  and  Driving,  for  the  first 
time  in  a  work  of  this  kind. — As  these  are  perhaps 
the  most  important  subjects  of  the  work,  and  as 
they  are,  in  their  greatest  excellence,  peculiar  to 
this  country,  the  work  has  been  called  British 
Exercises. 

Independently  of  this,  the  analysis  and  the 
method,  the  accuracy,  the  brevity  and  the  clearness, 
with  which,  it  is  hoped,  the  work  is  constructed, 
Avill  probably  distinguish  such  even  of  its  subjects 
as  are  less  new  from  most  of  the  accounts  given 
by  others,  whether  in  separate  or  collected  treatises. 


VI  ADVERTISEMENT. 

With  this  view,  no  pains  have  been  spared  in 
improving  the  arrangement  and  composition  of 
existing  materials. 

It  is  here  necessary  only  to  add  a  few    words 
as  to  some  of  the  subjects  introduced. — Boxing 
is  given  only  as  the  most   valuable  exercise    in 
relation  to  the  chest,  and  lungs,    and  in  case  of 
emergency,  for  self-defence,  but  by  no    means  in 
approval  of  prize-fighting.      Wrestling  is  given 
with  similar  views,  which  have  secured  to  it  the 
approbation  both  of   ancient  and  modern  times. 
Training   is  essential  to  all    exercise — nay,    it 
supersedes    medicine   by  banishing   disease,    as 
shown  by   Asclepiades,  and  a  thousand  others. 
Four-in-hand  is  given  as  the  perfection  of  driving 
(for  to  the  highest  excellence  in  every  art  we 
should  look),  and  this  art  need  not  be   lost  sight 
of,  till,  according  to  the  promise  held    out,    steam 
has  superseded  the  usual  mode  of  travelling,  and 
horses  are  to  be  found  only  as  specimens   in  the 
Zoolosrical  Gardens  ! 


ADVERTISEMENT.  Vll 

Throughout  the  work,  useful  exercises  alone 
are  given,  and  mere  pastimes  are  excluded,  it  is 
hoped  not  unwisely,  in  an  age  when,  even  with 
all  the  improvement  of  our  methods,  the  acquire- 
ments necessary  to  the  highest  degree  of  bodily 
and  mental  accomplishment,  are  sufficiently 
numerous  to  occupy  the  period    of  life  which  is 

devoted  to  them. 

D.  W. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Preliminary  Observations. 

Extent  and  Utility  of  Exercises                 ...  17 

Peculiarities  of  the  Present  System    ...            ...  18 

General  Directions            ...            ...            ...  20 

Walking.             ...            ...            ...            .„            ...  22 

Walking  in  General        ...            ...            ...  ib. 

Position  in  Walking               ...            ...            ...  23 

The  Slow  Walk,  or  March          24 

The  Moderate,  and  the  Uuick  Pace                ...  ii. 

The  Moderate  Pace                    ...            ...  25 

The auick  Pace      ...           ...           ...           ...  26 

Feats  in  Walking           ...            ...            ...  28 

Running.                         ...            ...            ...            ...  29 

Running  in  General                  ...           ...  ib^ 

Position  in  Running            ...            ...            ...  ih. 

Action  in  Running                     ...            ...  jh. 

Respiration            ...            ...           ...            ...  30 

Moderate  Running      ,             ...            ...  ih. 

Rapid  Running                   ...            ,.,            ...  31 

Feats  in  running                      ...           ...  H). 


i  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Leafing.                      ...            ...            .,.-           .,.  33 

Leaping  in  General               ...           ...  ib. 

The  High  Leap                 ih. 

Without  a  Run                 ...           ...  ib. 

With  a  Run               ...            ...            ...  34 

Feats  in  High  Leaping                  ...  35 

The  Long  Leap                ...           ...            ...  ib. 

Without  a  Run                 ...            ...  ib. 

With  a  Run              ...            ...            ...  ib. 

Feats  in  Long  Leaping                 ...  37 

The  Deep  Leap               ...           ...            ...  ib. 

Vaulting.            .,.           ...            ...            ...  38 

Vaulting  in  General                      ...            ...  ib. 

Oblique  Vaulting                   ...            ..,  ib^ 

Mounting  and  Dismounting               ...  ib. 

Going  Over                    ...            ...  39 

Straight-forward  Vaulting           ...           ...  40 

Balancing.          ...            ...            ...            ...  41 

Balancing  in  General                   ...            ...  ib 

Position  and  Action  in  Balancing      ...  ib. 

Turns,  &c.  in  Balancing               ...            ...  42 

Skating.              ...            ...            ...            ...  44 

.   Skating  in  General                        ...            ...  ib. 

Construction  of  the  Skate                 ...  ib. 

Dress  of  the  Skater          ...            ...            ...  47 

Preliminary  and  General  Directions  48 

The  ordinary  Run,  or  Inside  Edge  Forward  .50 

The  Forward  Roll,  or  Outside  Edge           ...  51 

Figure  of  Three,  or  Inside  Edge  Backward  53 


CO  NTENTS. 


* 

Page. 

Outside  Edge  Backward 

55 

Double  Three 

56 

Back  Roll                  

57 

Back  Cross  Roll 

lb. 

Waltz  and  auadrille  Skating 

58 

Feats  in  Skating 

%b. 

Treatment  of  Drowned  Persons 

59 

Climbing. 

61 

Climbing  in  General 

■ib. 

Kinds  of  Climbing 

ih. 

The  Ladder               

lb. 

The  Inclined  Board 

62 

The  Upright  Pole                  ...            .:. 

'iV. 

The  Mast 

€3 

The  Slant  Pole                        

ib. 

The  Horizontal,  or  Slightly  inclined  Bar 

Uk 

The  Rope  Ladder 

65 

The  Upright  Rope 

zb. 

The  Oblique  Rope             

66 

The  Level  Rope 

ib. 

Climbing  Trees 

67 

Swimming 

^;^i 

Preparatory  Instructions 

ib. 

Attitude 

■lb. 

Action  of  the  Hands 

■ih  _ 

Action  of  the  Feet 

69 

Place,  Time,  &c.  of  Swimming 

70 

Place            

iV. 

Time                    

71 

*H  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Dress            ...           ...           ...  ...           71 

Aids                     ...            ...           ...  72 

Cramp                         ...            ...  ...            73 

Usual  Mode  of  From  Swimming        ...  74 

Entering  the  Water                ...  ...           ib. 

Baoyancy  in  the  Water                 ...  ib^ 

Attitude  and  Action  in  the  Water  ...           77 

Respiration  in  Swimming             ...  78 

Coming  out  of  the  Water        ...  ...           79 

Upright  Swimming                 ...            ...  ib. 

Bernardi's  System                  ...  ...           ib. 

Treading  Water              ...         '  ...  83 

Back  Swimming               ...            ...  ...           84 

Floating                      ...            ...            ...  85 

Side  Swimming                ...            ...  ...           ib. 

Plunging                    ...           ...           ...  86 

Diving                              87 

Thrusting                    ...            ..            ...  88 

Springing                         ...           ...  ...           89 

One-arm  Swimming               ...            ...  ib. 

Rowing.         ...            ...            ...            ...  ...            91 

River  Rowing,  with  two  Sculls           ...  ib. 

The  Boat,  &c.             ib. 

To  leave  the  Landing  Place         ...  ib. 

The  Seat                    ...            ...  ...            92 

'  The  Pull             ib. 

The  Tide  or  Current               ...  ..           94 

To  Turn                           ...           ...  ib. 

Meeting  or  Passing                ...  ,..            95 

To  Land              ...           ...           ..,  ib. 

Sea-rowing,  or  Rowing  in  a  Galley,  in  the  River    ib. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Sailing. 

... 

98 

Boats,  &c. 

ib. 

Courses,  &c. 

... 

105 

Getting  under  Weigh 

ib. 

Before  the  Wind,  with  the  Main  Boom  over  to 

Starboard 

... 

107 

Bringing  the  Vessel  with  the  Wind  on 

the  Lar 

- 

board  Beani 

109 

Close  Hauling  the  Vessel 

110 

Tacking 

111 

Reefing,  TRking  in  Sail,  &c. 

... 

112 

Passing  other  Vessels 

115 

Bringing  the  Vessels  into  Harbor 

... 

ib. 

Description  of  Plates 

116 

Riding.                        ...            ...            ...            ...  118 

General  Style  in  Riding                    ...  ib. 

The  Saddle 119 

Bridles                    ...           ...            ...  ib. 

The  Horse  and  Equipments                     ...  120 

Mounting  and  Dismounting             ...  125 

The  Seat           128 

The  Balance            131 

The  Rein-Hold               132 

The  Correspondence           ...            ...  136 

The  Action                     137 

The  Hand               :..  139 

The  Guidance  or  Aids                 ...            ...  142 

Aids  of  the  Hand                       ...  ib. 

The  Five  Positions  when  one  Rein  is  held 

in  each  Hand                  ...           ...  ib. 


Xiy  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

The  Five  Positions  when  the  Reins  are  held 

in  one  Hand                   ...  ...               143 

The  T  wistings  of  the  Bridle  Hand  ib. 

Aids  of  the  Body          ..,               ...  ...       144 

Aids  of  the  Legs                   ...  ...                145 

Animations,  Soothings,  and  Corrections  147 

The  Walk                          ..               ...  ...        149 

The  Walk  in  General          ...  ...                  ib. 

Turns  in  the  Walk                      ...  ...        150 

Stops  in  the  Walk                ...  ...                152 

Going  Backward  in  the  Walk  ...        153 

The  Trot                    ...               ...  ...                154 

The  Trot  in  General                   ...  ...         ib. 

Kinds  of  Trot                      ...  ...                155 

The  Trot  in  Particular  ,             ...  ...        156 

Turns,  Stops,  &c.  in  the  Trot  ...                157 

Road  Riding                      ...               ...  ...         158 

The  Gallop                 ...               ...  ...                 160 

The  Gallop  in  General,  and  its  Kinds  ...          ib. 

The  Canter  in  Particular  ...                 162 

Turns,  Changes,  Stops,  «&c.  in  the  Gallop  164 

Leaping            ...                ...               ...  ...        166 

Leaping  in  General             ...  ...                    ib. 

Standing  Leap             ...               ...  ...        167 

Flying  Leap                         ...  ...                169 

Critical  Situations             ...               ...  ...        171 

Stumbling           ...               ...  ...                172 

Rearing:                      ...               ...  ...        173 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Kicking 

174 

Plunging 

175 

Shying  &c. 

...        176 

Restiveness 

177 

Treatment  of  the  Horse 

179 

IIVING 

185 

Importance  of  Driving 

ib- 

The  Roads 

192 

Carriages 

193 

Coach-Horses 

196 

Harness 

206 

Relative  Places  of  Horses 

207 

Coachmen 

212 

Mounting  and  Dismounting 

219 

The  Seat 

...        220 

The  Rein-Hold 

ib. 

Starting 

222 

The  Paces 

224 

The  Time 

...        225 

The  Whip 

226 

Thoroughfares,  Passing,  &c. 

...        233 

Ascending  and  Descending 

234 

The  Turnings 

238 

The  Ranks  in  Town 

239 

Stops 

ib. 

Accidents,  &c.  to  Horses 

240 

Accidents  to  Coaches,  &c. 

242 

Obstructions,  Offences,  and  Injuries 

^7 

XVI  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Wrestling  249 

Wrestling  in  General  .,               ..           ib. 

The  Push               ..  ..               ..               252 

The  Pull                      ..  ..                        253 

The  Heave               ...  ...               ...            ih. 

The  Throw                      ...  ...                     256 

Backward  ...               ...             ib. 

Forward                   ...  ...                     257 

The  Mixed  Wrestle  ...               ...            258 

Boxing  259 

Utility  of  Boxing            ...  ...                        ih 

Physical  dualities  of  Boxers  ...            265 

Art  essential  in  Boxing  ...                        ib. 

Position  of  the  Body  ...               ...            266 

Mode  of  Striking         ...  ...                        267 

Most  Effective  Blows  .,               ...              269 

Bottom           ...               ...  ...                    271 

Rules  in  Boxing  ..,               ,..             272 

Training.  273 


PRELIMINARY  OBSERVATIONS. 


EXTEIJT  AND  UTILITY  OF  EXERCISES. 

Education  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  physical  and 
mental.  Of  the  former  Exercises  or  GymTiastics,  are  the 
most  extensive  and  the  earliest  portion. 

Their  purpose  is  to  subject  to  systematic  guidance  and 
strengthen  the  muscular  system,  and  to  teach  the  means  of 
employing  it  most  advantageously,  in  every  useful  exer- 
cise. 

Their  Extent  maybe  seen  by  an  enumeration  of  iheir 
objects,  which  are— Walking,  Running,  Leaping,  Vault- 
ing, Balancing,  Climbing  and  Wrestling.  To  these,  some 
have  properly  added  Skating  and  swimming.  And,  in  a 
course  of  British  Exercises,  we  think  Rowing,  Sailing, 
Riding  and  Driving,  would  be  very  improperly  omitted. 

The  expediency  of  their  early  acqoisition  is  rendered 
evident  by  the  first  tendency  of  youth  being  toward  them, 
by  the  rapid  progress  it  makes  in  them,  and  by  the  delight 
it  derives  from  them,  at  a  period  when  it  is  incapable  with 
real  or  solid  advantage,  of  higher  acquirements. 
2 


18  PRELIMINARY"    OBSERVATIONS. 

Their  general  utility  will  be  questioned  only  by  those 
who  are  not  aware,  that  the  health  and  vigor  of  all  the 
bodily  organs  depend  on  the  proportioned  exercise  of  each. 

Exercises  insure,  in  particular,  the  development  of  all 
the  locomotive  organs ;  and  they  prevent  or  correct  all  the 
deformities  to  which  these  organs  are  liable.  They  are 
best  calculated  to  produce  strength  and  activity,  and  to 
bestow  invariable  health.  They,  at  the  same  time,  con- 
fer beauty  of  form  ;  and  they  contribute  to  impart  an  ele- 
gant air  and  graceful  manners. 

They,  moreover,  inspire  confidence  in  difficult  situa- 
tions, and  suggest  resources  in  danger.  Their  conse- 
quent influence  on  the  moral  conduct  of  man  is  such,  that 
by  a  courage  which  is  well  founded,  because  it  springs 
from  a  perfect  knowledge  of  his  own  powers,  he  is  often 
enabled  to  render  the  most  important  sei  vices  to  others. 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM. 

We  owe  it  not  less  to  the  reader  than  to  ourselves,  to 
point  out  the  peculiarities  of  the  system  of  Exercises 
which  is  here  presented  to  him.    These  are  as  follows : 

1st.  Rowing  and  Sailing  are,  for  the  first  time,  describ- 
ed ;  and  Riding  and  Driving  are,  for  the  first  time,  added 
to  a  work  of  this  kind. 

Of  these  exercises,  the  first  and  second,  as  well  as  many 
individual  parts  in  others,  namely,  the  paces  in  walking, 
the  Rein-hold  in  driving,  &c.,  are  entirely  original,  there 


PECULIARITIES    OP    THE    P  R  E  SENT  SYS  T  E  M  .      J9 

being  (eminently  British  as  these  exercises  are)  no  work 
with  which  we  are  acquainted  that  treats  of  them.* 

2d.  All  exhibitionary  and  quackish  preparatory  exercis- 
es, as  they  are  termed,  are  here  excluded  ;  and  nothing 
is  introduced  which  has  not  a  direct,  immediate,  and  ob- 
vious purpose — no  tick-tack,  cross-touch,  kissing  the 
ground,  goat's  jump,  spectre's  march,  &c. 

The  twelve  or  fourteen  branches  of  useful  exercises 
are  sufficient  to  exercise  every  muscle  of  the  body  ;  it  is 
the  exerciser's  fault  if  they  do  not  this  in  the  most  grad- 
ual and  gentle  way ;  and  if  indeed  any  muscle  remained 
unexercised  by  these,  infinitely  varied  as  they  are,  it 
would  not  be  worth  exercising. 

3d.  Everything  is  described  in  the  simplest  manner, 
and  in  as  few  words  as  possible — a  mode  much  opposed 
to  that  of  some  works  on  this  subject,  the  writer's  object 
being  to  enable  any  one  either  to  practice  these  exercises 
by  himself,  or  to  teach  them  to  others. 

A  comparison  with  the  descriptions  of  any  other  gen- 
eral work  will  put  this  to  the  test.  Indeed,  those  here 
given  will,  in  most  cases,  be  found  to  be  so  simple  and 
clear  as  to  be  intelligible  even  without  a  reference  to  the 
plates ;  let  this  be  tried  with  other  works. 


*  Notwithstanding  this  desire  to  be  original,  or  rather  this  necessity 
for  being  so,  where  previous  materials  were  altogether  wanting,  the  aii- 
tlior  has  carefully  profited  by  all  the  existing  works  ;  as  Gutsmuth,  Salz- 
man,  and  their  followers,  a  Military  Ofiflcer,  Clias,  &c.  on  Gymnastics 
generally ;  Franklin,  Bernardi,  Frost,  &c.  onSwimming ;  Berenger,Adams, 
the  Manual  for  Cavalry,  &c.  on  Riding ;  and  Nimrod,  &c-on  Driving.— 
The  autlior  makes  once  for  all,  this  general  acknowledgement;  he  could 
rarely  indeed  have  marked  quoted  passages  with  inverted  commas,  as 
there  is  scarcely  anything,  even  in  the  least  original  part  of  the  work, 
which  is  not  greatly  abridged,  or  corrected,  or  otherwise  improved. 


20  PRELIMINARY    OBSERVATIONS. 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 

it  remains  for  us  only  to  give  a  few  directions  as  to  the 
time,  place,  and  circumstances  of  exercises. 

The  best  time  for  the  elementary  exercises  is  when  the 
air  is  cool,  as  even  in  summer  it  is  early  in  the  morning, 
or  after  the  sun  has  declined  ;  and  they  should  never  im- 
mediately follow  a  meal. 

The  best  place  for  these  elementary  exercises  is  a 
smooth  grass-plat,  or  a  firm  sandy  sea-beach.  Chasms, 
stones,  and  stakes,  are  always  dangerous. 

At  the  commencement  of  such  exercise,  the  coat  and 
all  unnecessary  clothes  should  be  laid  aside ;  and  all  hard 
or  sharp  things  should  be  taken  from  the  pockets  of  the 
remaining  dress.  A  very  light  covering  on  the  head,  as  a 
straw-hat  is  best ;  the  shirt-collar  should  be  open ;  the 
breast  should  be  either  exposed,  or  thinly  covered ;  the 
waistband  of  the  trowsers  should  not  be  tight;  and  the 
boots  or  shoes  should  have  no  iron  about  them. 

As  sudden  transitions  are  always  bad,  exercise  should 
begin  gently,  and  should  terminate  in  the  same  manner. 

As  the  left  hand  and  arm  are  commonly  weaker  than 
the  right,  they  should  be  exercised  till  they  become  as 
strong. 

The  being  cooled  too  quickly  is  injurious.  Therefore, 
drinking  when  very  hot,  or  lying  down  on  the  cold  ground 
^should  be  carefully  ?ivoided. 

No  exertion  should  be  carried  to  excess,  as  that  only 
exhausts  and  enfeebles  the  body.  Therefore,  whenever 
the  gymnast  feels  tired,  or  falls  behind  his  usual  mark,  he 
should  resume  his  clothes,  and  walk  home. 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS.  "21 

The  moment  exercise  is  finished,  the  clothes  should  al- 
ways be  put  on,  and  the  usual  precautions  adopted  to  pre- 
vent taking  cold. 

The  necessary  fittings-up  of  an  exercising  ground,  are 
a  leaping  stand,  a  vaulting  horse,  a  balancing  bar,  a 
climing  stand,  with  ladders,  poles,  and  ropes,  which  may 
be  seen  united  as  simply  and  economically  as  possible,  in 
a  subsequent  sketch. 


22 


WALKING. 


WALKING  IN  GENERAL. 


Of  all  exercises,  walking  is  the  most  simple  and  easy. 
The  weight  of  the  body  rests  on  one  foot,  while  the  other 
is  advanced ;  it  is  then  thrown  upon  the  advanced  foot, 
while  the  other  is  brought  forward  ;  and  so  on  in  succes- 
sion. 

In  this  mode  of  progression,  the  slowness  and  equal 
distribution  of  motion  is  such,  that  many  muscles  are  em- 
ployed in  a  greater  or  less  degree ;  each  acts  in  unison 
with  the  rest ;  and  the  whole  remains  compact  and  united. 
Hence  the  time  of  its  movements  may  be  quicker  or  slow- 
er, without  deranging  the  union  of  the  parts,  or  the  equi- 
librium of  the  whole. 

It  is  owing  to  these  circumstances,  that  walking  displays 
so  much  of  the  character  of  the  walker, — that  it  is  light 
and  gay  in  women  and  children,  steady  and  grave  in  men 
and  elderly  persons,  irregular  in  the  nervous  and  irritable, 
measured  in  the  affected  and  formal,  brisk  in  the  sanguine, 
heavy  in  the  phlegmatic,  and  proud  or  humble,  bold  or 
timid,  &c.  in  strict  correspondence  with  individual  char- 
acter. 

The  utility  of  walking  exceeds  that  of  all  other  modes  of 
progression.  While  the  able  pedestrian  is  independent 
of  stage-coaches  and  hired  horses,  he  alone  fully  enjoys 


POSITION,    ETC.    IN    WALKING.  23 

the  scenes  through  which  he  passes,  and  is  free  to  dispose 
of  his  time  as  he  pleases. 

To  counterbalance  these  advantages,  greater  fatigue  is 
doubtless  attendant  on  walking ;  but  this  fatigue  is  really 
the  result  of  previous  inactivity;  for  daily  exercise,  grad- 
ally  increased,  by  rendering  walking  more  easy  and 
agreeable,  and  inducing  its  more  frequent  practice,  di- 
minishes fatigue  in  such  a  degree,  that  very  great  distan- 
ces may  be  accomplished  with  pleasure,  instead  of  pain- 
ful exertion. 

In  relation  to  health,  walking  accelerates  respiration  and 
circulation,  increases  the  temperature  and  cutaneous  ex- 
halation, and  excites  appetite  and  healthful  nutrition. 
Hence  as  an  anonymous  writer  observes,  the  true  pedes- 
trian, after  a  walk  of  twenty  miles,  comes  in  to  breakfast 
with  freshness  on  his  countenance,  healthy  blood  cours- 
ing in  every  vein,  and  vigor  in  every  limb,  while  the  in- 
dolent and  inactive  man,  having  painfully  crept  over  a 
mile  or  two,  returns  to  a  dinner  which  his  stomach  can- 
not digest. 

A  firm,  yet  easy  and  graceful  walk,  however,  is  by  no 
means  common, 

THE  POSITION  AND  THE  THREE  PACES  IN  WALKING, 

In  all  walking,  the  position  is  nearly  the  same ;  but  it 
may  be  performed  in  three  different  times — slow,  mode- 
rate, or  quick,  which  somewhat  modify  its  action,  and  of 
which  gjinnasiarchs  have  described  only  the  first. 

POSITION  IN  WALKING. 

The  head  should  be  upright  easy,  and  capable  of  free 
motion,  right,  left,  up,  or  down,  without  effecting  the  po- 


•24  WALKING. 

jiitioii  of  the  body.  The  latter  should  be  upright,  hav- 
ing the  breast  projected,  and  the  stomach  retracted,  though 
not  so  as  to  injure  either  freedom  of  respiration,  or  ease 
of  attitude.  The  shoulders  should  be  kept  moderately 
and  equally  back  and  low;  and  the  arms  should  hang 
unconstrainedly  by  the  sides.  The  knees  should  be 
straight;  the  toes  should  form  nearly  half  a  right  angle 
with  the  line  of  walk ;  and  the  weight  of  the  body  should 
rest  principally  on  the  balls  of  the  feet. 


THE  SLOW  WALK  OR  MARCH. 

This  would  perhaps,  like  the  others,  have  escaped  the 
description  of  gymnasiarchs,  if  military  movements  had 
not  rendered  such  negligence  impossible. 

In  the  march,  one  foot  the  left  for  instance,  is  advanced, 
with  ihe  knee  straight  and  the  toe  inclined  to  the  ground 
which  it  touches  before  the  heel ;  the  right  foot  is  then 
immediately  raised,  and  similarly  advanced,  inclined 
and  brought  to  the  ground ;  and  so  on  in  succession. 
Care  is  taken  to  keep  the  sole,  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
step,  nearly  parallel  with  the  ground ;  to  touch  the  ground 
first  with  the  outer  edge  ,•  and  to  rise  from  the  inner 
edge  of  the  toe.    (Plate  I.  Figures  1  and  2). 

This  pace  should  be  practised  until  it  can  be  firmly  and 
gracefully  performed. 


THE  MODERATE  AND  THE  aUICK  PACE. 

These  will  be  best  understood  by  a  reference  to  the  pace 
which  we  have  just  described;   the  principal  difference 


THEMODERATEPACE.  25 

between  them  being  as  to  the  part  of  the  foot  which  first 
touches;  and  last  leaves  the  ground,  and  this  being  the 
circumstance  in  them  which  has  been  altogether  over- 
looked. 

We  have  seen  that,  in  the  march,  the  toe  externally 
first  touches  and  internally  last  leaves  the  ground ;  and 
so  marked  is  this  tendency,  that,  in  the  stage  step,  which 
is  meant  to  be  especially  dignified, — as  the  posterior  foot 
acquires  an  awkward  flexure  when  the  weight  has  been 
thrown  on  the  anterior, — in  order  to  correct  this,  the  for- 
mer is,  for  an  instant,  extended,  its  toe  even  turned  back- 
wards and  outwards,  and  its  tip  internally  alone  rested  on 
the  ground,  previous  to  its  being  in  its  turn  advanced. — 
Thus  the  toe's  first  touching  and  last  leaving  the  ground, 
is  peculiarly  marked  in  this  grandest  form  of  the  march. 

We  shall  .find,  that  the  times  of  the  other  two  paces 
suffer  successively  less  and  less  of  this  extended  touching 
with  the  toe,  and  covering  the  ground  with  the  foot. 

THE   MODERATE   PACE. 

Here,  it  is  no  longer  the  toe,  but  the  ball  of  the  foot, 
which  first  touches  and  last  leaves  the  ground ;  its  outer 
edge  or  the  ball  of  the  little  toe  first  breaking  the  descent 
of  the  foot,  and  its  inner  edge  or  the  ball  of  the  great  toe 
last  projecting  the  weight.— (Plate  I.  Figures  3  and  4.) 

Thus,  in  this  step,  less  of  the  foot  may  be  said  actively 
to  cover  the  ground;  the  foot-step  is  in  effect  rendered 
shorter  by  the  difference  of  the  length  of  the  toes;  the 
pace  is  accelerated  just  in  proportion ;  and  this  adoption 
of  nearer  and  stronger  points  of  support  and  action  is 
essential  to  the  increased  quickness  and  exertion  of  the 
pace. 


26  WALKING. 

This  pace  has  never  been  described  either  by  dancing 
masters  or  drill  sergeants;  nothing  quicker  than  the 
march  has  been  attended  to ;  people  pass  from  that  to  the 
quick  pace  they  know  not  how;  and  hence  all  the  awk- 
wardness and  embarrassment  of  their  walk  when  their 
pace  becomes  moderate,  and  the  misery  they  endure  when 
this  pace  has  to  be  performed  by  them  unaccompanied, 
up  the  middle  of  a  long  and  well-lighted  room,  where  the 
eyes  of  a  brilliant  assembly  are  exclusively  directed  to 
them. — Let  those  who  have  felt  this  but  attend  to  what 
we  have  here  said:  the  motion  of  the  arms  and  every 
other  part  depend  on  it. 

THE   QUICK   PACE, 

Here,  still  nearer  and  stronger  points  of  support  and 
action  are  chosen.  The  outer  edge  of  the  heel  first 
touches  the  ground,  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  projects  the 
weight.  These  are  essential  to  the  increH^ed  quickness 
of  this  pace. — (Plate  I.  Figures  5  and  6.) 

An  important  remark  has  yet  to  be  made  as  to  all  these 
paces.  The  toes  are  successively  less  turned  out  in  each. 
In  the  grandest  form  of  the  march,  the  toes,  as  we  have, 
seen,  are,  in  the  posterior  foot,  though  but  for  a  moment, 
even  thrown  backwards ;  in  the  moderate  pace,  they  have 
an  intermediate  direction,  forming  nearly  half  a  right 
angle  with  the  line  of  walk ;  and  in  the  quick  pace,  they 
are  thrown  more  directly  forward. — (See  the  6  Figures  of 
Plate  I.) 

It  is  this  direction  of  the  toes,  and  still  more  the  nearer 
and  stronger  points  of  support  and  action,  namely  the 


T  II  E   a  L"  1  C  K   P  A  C  E  .  27 

heel  and  sole  of  the  foot,  which  are  essential  to  the  quick 
pace  so  universally  practised,  but  which,  being  ridicu- 
lously transferred  to  the  moderate  pace,  make  unfortu- 
nate people  look  so  awkward,  as  we  shall  now  explain. 

The  time  of  the  moderate  pace  is  as  it  were  filled  up  by 
the  more  complicated  process  of  the  step — by  the  gradual 
and  easy  breaking  of  the  descent  of  the  foot  on  its  outer 
edge  or  the  ball  of  the  little  toe,  by  the  deliberate  positing 
of  the  foot,  by  its  equally  gradual  and  easy  projection 
from  its  inner  edge  or  the  ball  of  the  great  toe. — The 
time  of  the  quick  pace,  if  lengthened,  has  no  such  filling 
up:  the  man  stumps  at  once  down  on  his  heel,  and  could 
rise  instantly  from  his  sole,  but  finds  that,  to  fill  up  his 
time,  he  must  pause  an  instant ;  he  feels  he  should  do 
something,  and  does  not  know  what ;  his  hands  suffer  the 
same  momentary  paralysis  as  his  feet ;  he  gradually  be- 
comes confused  and  embarrassed ;  deeply  sensible  of  this, 
he  at  last  exhibits  it  externally ;  a  smile  or  a  titter  arises, 
though  people  do  not  well  know  at  what;  but,  in  short, 
the  man  has  walked  like  a  clown,  because  the  mechanism 
of  his  step  has  not  filled  up  its  time,  or  answered  its  pur- 
pose. 


I  trust  that  the  mechanism  a/iid  time  of  the  three  jpaces^ 
are  here,  for  the  first  time,  simply,  clearly,  and  impress- 
ively described.  I  have  not  seen  them  even  attempted 
elsewhere,  which  I  think  most  discreditable  to  the  people 
whose  business  it  is  to  teach  such  things.  It  becomes  in- 
deed of  real  importance  among  certain  classes  of  society 
and  in  certain  situations ;  and  I  should  be  imworthy  my 
name,  If  I  neglected  it. 


WALKING. 


FEATS   IN  WALKING. 


The  power  of  walking  great  distances  without  fatigue, 
is  an  important  matter,  in  which  the  English  have  of  late 
excelled. 

A  good  walker  will  do  six  miles  an  hour  for  one  hour 
on  a  good  road.*  If  in  perfect  training,  he  may  even  do 
twelve  miles  in  two  hours.  Eighteen  miles  in  three  hours, 
is  a  much  more  doubtful  affair,  though  some  are  said  to 
have  achieved  it. 

At  the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  pedestrians  of  the 
first  class  will  do  forty  miles  in  eight  hours,  and  perhaps 
fifty  in  ten.t 

At  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  a  man  may  walk  any 
length  of  time. 


•  Seven  miles  in  one  hour  are  said  to  have  been  done  by  some. 
+  A  clever  writer  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  says, 'There  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  out  of  the  British  army,  on  a  war  establishment,  ten  thousand 
men  might  be  chosen,  by  trial,  who  would  compose  a  corps  capable  of 
marching  fifty  miles  a  day,  on  actual  service,  for  a  whole  week.  The 
power  of  such  a  corps  is  not  to  be  calculated— it  would  far  outgo  cavalry.' 


29 


RUNNING. 

RUNNING   IN  GENERAL. 

'  Running,'  says  one  of  our  gymnasiarchs,  '  only  differs 
from  walking  by  the  rapidity  of  the  movements.'  This  is 
quite  incorrect.  Running  is  precisely  intermediate  to 
walking  and  leaping:  and,  in  order  to  pass  into  it  from 
walking,  the  motion  must  be  changed :  a  series  of  leaps 
from  each  foot  alternately  must  be  performed,  in  order  to 
constitute  it. 


POSITION   IN   RUNNING. 

The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  slightly  inclined  forward  5 
the  breast  is  freely  projected ;  the  upper  parts  of  the  arms 
are  kept  near  the  sides ;  the  elbows  are  bent,  and  each 
forms  an  acute  angle ;  the  hands  are  shut,  with  the  nails 
turned  inwards ;  and  the  whole  arms  move  but  slightly, 
in  order  that  the  muscles  of  respiration  on  the  chest  may 
be  as  little  as  possible  disturbed,  and  follow  only  the  im- 
pulse communicated  by  other  parts.— (Plate  II.  Figure  1.) 

ACTION   IN  RUNNING. 

At  every  step,  the  knees  are  stretched  out ;  the  legs  are 
kept  as  straight  as  possible ;  the  feet  almost  graze  the 
ground ;  the  tread  is  neither  with  the  mere  balls  of  the 
toes,  nor  with  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot ;  and  the  spring 
is  made  rapidly  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  so  that  they 
pass  each  other  with  great  velocity,— (Plate  II.  Figure  2.) 

The  degree  of  velocity,  however,  must  be  proportioned 


30  RUNNING. 

to  the  length  of  the  steps.    Too  slow  and  long,  as  well  as 
too  quick  and  short,  steps,  maybe  equally  injurious. 

RESPIRATION. 

During  the  whole  time  of  running,  long  inspirations 
and  slow  expirations  are  of  the  greatest  importance ;  and 
young  persons  cannot  be'  too  early  accsutomed  to  them. 

To  facilitate  respiration  towards  the  end  of  the  race, 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  may  be  leant  a  little  forward. 

Running  should  cease  as  soon  as  the  breath  becomes 
very  short,  and  a  strong  perspiratioji  takes  place. 

MODERATE   RUNNING. 

This  is  performed  gently  and  in  equal  time,  and  may  be 
extended  to  a  considerable  space. 

In  practising  this  pace,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  the  dis- 
tance to  be  run ;  and  this  should  always  be  proportioned 
to  the  age  and  strength  of  the  runners. 

A  moderately  cool  day  may  accordingly  be  chosen;  a 
distance  of  three  hundred  feet  measured;  and  the  run- 
ners placed  in  a  line  at  one  end. 

They  may  then  start,  trot  at  the  rate  of  about  sev^en 
feet  in  a  second  to  the  opposite  end,  turn,  and  continue 
until  they  reach  the  spot  whence  they  started. 

Frequent  repetition  of  this  is  sufficient  at  first.  After- 
wards, they  may  run  over  this  space,  two,  three,  or  four 
times  without  stopping;  and  the  exercise  may  then  be 
limited  to  this. 

It  may,  on  subsequent  days,  be  extended  successively 
to  five,  six,  and  seven  times  the  distance. 


R  A  P  1  D  R  U  N  N  1  N  G  .  3l 

Fatigue  is  then  generally  quite  removed;  and  the  run 
may  either  be  continued  further,  or  the  runners,  if  nei- 
ther heated  nor  winded,  may  accelerate  their  pace. 

They  may  next  attempt  a  mile  in  ten  minutes,  and  re- 
peat this,  till,  being  gradually  less  and  less  heated,  they 
can  either  extend  the  distance,  or  diminish  the  time,  in 
any  measured  proportion. 

At  this  pace,  six  miles  may  afterwards  be  run  in  an 
hour. 


RAPID  RUNNING. 

This  is  best  applied  to  a  short  space  in  little  time. 

Three  hundred  feet  upon,  an  open  plain  will  not  gene- 
rally be  found  too  great.  At  each  end  of  this,  a  cross  line 
may  be  drawn;  and  the  runners  may  arrange  themselves 
on  one  line,  while  the  umpire  is  placed  at  the  other. 

On  the  latter  giving  the  signal,  the  running  commences ; 
and  he  who  first  passes  him  gains  the  race. 

It  is  extremely  useful  always  to  run  beyond  the  line  at 
a  gentler  pace,  as  it  gradually  lowers  the  actions  of  the 
respiratory  and  circulating  systems. 


FEATS   IN   RUNNING. 

The  practise  of  running  may  be  carried  to  a  great  de. 
gree  of  perfection. 

A  quarter  of  a  mile  in  a  minute  is  good  running ;  and 
a  mile  in  four  minutes,  at  four  starts,  is  excellent. 

The  mile  was  perhaps  never  run  in  four  minutes  ;  but 
it  has  been  done  in  four  minutes  and  a  half 

A  mile  in  five  minutes  is  good  running.     Two  miles  in 


32  RUNNING. 

ten  minutes  is  oftener  failed  in  than  accomplished.  Four 
miles  in  twenty  is  said  to  puzzle  the  cleverest. 

Ten  miles  an  hour  is  done  by  all  the  best  runners. 
Fifteen  miles  in  an  hour  and  a  half  has  never  perhaps 
been  done. 

Forty  miles  in  four  hours  and  three  quarters  or  less,  it 
is  said,  was  done  by  one  individual. 

As  to  great  distances,  Rainer  failed  in  two  attempts  to 
accomplish  100  miles  in  eighteen  hours.  Captain  Bar- 
clay's walking  180  miles  without  resting,  and  also  1000 
miles  in  1000  successive  hours,  are  sufficiently  well 
known. 


as 


LEAPING. 


LEAPING  IN  GENERAL. 

Iq  leaping,  the  body  is  rapidly  projected  from  the 
ground,  chiefly  by  a  sudden  extension  of  the  limbs. 

The  leaping-stand  consists  of  two  moveable  posts, 
above  six  feet  high,  having,  above  the  second  foot  from 
the  ground,  holes  bored  through  them,  at  the  distance  of 
an  inch  from  each  other ;  two  iron  pins  to  be  placed  in 
the  holes  at  any  height :  a  cord  at  least  ten  feet  long, 
passed  over  these  pins,  and  kept  straight  by  two  sand- 
bags at  its  ends ;  and  weights  upon  the  feet  of  the  posts, 
to  prevent  them  from  falling. — (  Plate  III.  Figure  1.) 

The  leap  over  the  cord,  is  made  from  the  side  of  the 
stand  towards  which  the  heads  of  the  pegs  are  turned ;  so 
that  if  the  feet  touch  the  cord,  it  will  easily  and  instant- 
ly fall. 

In  all  kinds  of  leaping,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  re- 
tain the  breath,  as  this  impels  the  blood  into  the  muscu- 
lar parts,  and  increases  their  strength.  In  all,  also,  the 
hands  should  be  shut,  and  the  arms  pendent. 

THE   HIGH   LEAP. 

Without  a  Run. 

In  this,  the  legs  and  feet  are  closed ;  the  knees  are  bent 

till  the  calves  nearly  touch  the  thighs ;  the  upper  part  of 

the  body,  kept  straight,  is  inclined  a  little  forward ;  and 

3 


34  LEAPING. 

the  arms  are  thrown  in  the  direction  of  the  'leap,  which 
increases  the  impulse,  preserves  the  balance,  and  may  be 
useful  in  a  fall.— (Plate  III,  Figure  1.) 

In  descending,  the  body  should  be  rather  inclined  for- 
ward ;  and  the  fall  should  take  place  on  the  forepart  of 
the  foot;  for  the  direct  descent  in  this  leap,  if  not  thus 
broken,  would  send  its  shock  from  the  heels  to  the  spine 
and  head,  and  might  occasion  injury. 

To  perpendicularity  in  this  leap,  should  be  added  light- 
ness, so  that  scarcely  any  noise  from  the  leap  should  be 
heard. 

This  leap,  without  a  run,  may  be  practised  at  the 
height : 

1st.  Of  the  knees  : 

2dly.  Of  the  middle  of  the  thighs ; 

3dly.  Of  the  hips. 

4thly.  Of  the  lower  ribs. 


With  a  Run. 

The  run  preceding  the  leap  should  never  exceed  ten 
paces. 

The  distance  between  the  point  of  springing  a'nd  the 
cord,  should  equal  half  the  cord's  height  from  the  ground. 

The  view  of  the  leaper  should  be  directed  first  to  the 
spot  whence  he  is  to  spring;  and  the  moment  he  has 
reached  that,  to  the  cord. 

The  leaper  should  learn  to  spring  from  either  foot,  and 
from  both  feet. 

The  instant  the  spring  is  made,  or  (if  it  be  made  with 
one  foot)  immediately  after,  the  feet  should  be  closed, 
and  the  knees  drawn  forcibly  towards  the  chin. 


THELONGLEAP.  35 

Throughout,  flexibility  and  skill,  not  violent  exertion, 
should  be  displayed. 
This  leap  with  a  riin,  may  be  practised  at  the  height: 
1st.  Of  the  hips; 
2dly.  Of  the  lower  ribs; 
odly.  Of  the  pit  of  the  stomach  ; 
4thly.  Of  the  breast; 
5thly.  Of  the  chin  ; 
Glhly.  Of  the  eyes  ; 
7thly.  Of  the  crown  of  the  head. 

Feats  in  High  Leaping.    . 

A  good  high  leaper  will  clear  five  feet;  a  first-rate  one, 
five  and  a  half;  and  an  extraordinary  one,  six  feet. 


THE   LONG   LEAP. 

Without  a  Run. 

Here  the  feet  are  closed  ;  the  whole  weight  rests  upon 
the  balls  of  the  toes ;  and  the  body  is  inclined  forward. 

Both  arms  are  then  swung  forward, — backward, — 
then  '.dra^vn  strongly  forward, — and  at  the  same  instant, 
the  limbs,  having  been  bent,  are  extended  with  the  utmost 
possible  force. 

On  level  ground,  twelve  feet  is  a  good  standing  leap; 
and  fourteen  is  one  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence. 

With  a  Run. 
This  leap  is  best  executed  with  a  run;  and  we  have 
thei  efore  dwelt  less  upon  the  former. 
Here  also,  the  body  must  be  inclined  forward. 
The  run  should  be  made  over  a  piece  of  fixm^  and  not 


36  LEAPING. 

slippery  ground,  to  the  extent  of  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
paces ;  should  consist  of  small  steps  increasing  in  quick- 
ness as  they  approach  the  point  of  springing ;  and  these 
should  be  so  calculated  as  to  bring  that  foot  upon  the  point 
with  which  the  leaper  is  accustomed  to  spring. 

The  spring,  as  here  implied,  should  be  performed  with 
one  foot,  and  the  arms  should  be  thrown  forcibly  towards 
the  place  proposed  to  be  reached. 

The  height,  as  well  as  the  length  of  the  leap,  must  be 
calculated;  tor  the  leap  is  shortened  by  not  springing  a 
proper  height. — (Plate  III.  Figure  2.) 

In  the  descent,  the  feet  are  closed,  the  knees  bent,  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  inclined  forward,  and  the  toes 
first  touch  the  ground,  at  which  moment,  a  light  spring, 
and  afterwards  some  short  steps,  are  made  in  order  to 
avoid  any  sudden  check. 

In  the  most  extended  leap,  however,  lighting  on  the 
toes  is  impossible,  A  sort  of  horizontal  swing  is  then 
achieved,  by  which  the  leaper 's  head  is  little  higher  than 
his  feet,  and  his  whole  figure  is  almost  parallel  with  the 
ground ;  and,  in  this  case,  to  alight  on  the  toes  is  impos- 
sible. 

Care,  however,  must  here  be  taken  not  to  throw  the 
feet  so  much  forward  as  to  cause  the  leaper  to  fall  back- 
ward at  the  moment  of  descent.  The  ground  must  be 
cleared,  or  the  leap  is  imperfect  and  unfair. 

This  leap  may  be  practised  at : 

1st,  Double  the  length  of  the  body  ; 

2dly.  Twice  and  a  half  that  length ; 

3dly.  Three  times  that  length. 


'  THE   DEEP    LEAP.  37 

Feats  in  Long  Leapiiig. 

On  level  ground,  twenty  feet  is  a  first-rate  leap  ;  twen- 
ty-one is  extraordinary ;  and  twenty-two  is  very  rarely 
accomplished. 

With  a  run  and  a  leap,  on  a  slightly  inclined  plane, 
twenty-three  feet  have  been  done. 

THE  DEEP  LEAP. 

This  may  be  made  either  with  or  without  the  hands. 

In  either  way,  to  avoid  the  shock,  the  body  must  be 
kept  in  a  bent  position,  and  the  fall  must  be  upon  the 
balls  of  the  toes. 

When  the  hands  are  used,  the  leaper  places  them  in 
front  of  the  feet;  and  during  the  descent,  the  weight  of 
the  body  is  cheeked  by  the  former,  and  passes  in  a  dimin- 
ished state  to  the  latter;  so  that  the  shock  is  obviated. 

A  flight  of  steps  serves  the  purpose  of  this  exercise. 

The  leaper  ascends  a  certain  number ;  leaps  from  the 
side ;  gradually  increases  the  number ;  and,  by  practising 
progressively  higher,  finds  it  easy  to  leap  from  heights 
which  at  first  appalled  him. 

The  leaper  afterwards  combines  the  long  and  deep 
leaps.  For  this  purpose,  a  rivulet,  which  has  one  bank' 
high  and  the  opposite  one  low,  is  very  favorable. 


38 


VAULTING. 


VAULTING   IN  GENERAL. 

In  vaulting,  by  a  spring  of  the  feet,  the  body  is  raised; 
and,  by  leaning  the  hands  upon  a  fixed  object,  it  at  the 
same  time  receives,  in  oblique  vaulting,  a  swing  which 
facilitates  the  action. 

As  the  inclination  thus  given  to  the  body  in  oblique 
vaulting  depends,  not  merely  on  the  feet,  but  on  the  hands, 
we  have  the  power  to  guide  the  body  in  any  direction. 

This  exercise  is  conveniently  practised  on  the  vaulting 
bar,  which  rests  upon  two  or  three  posts. 

Vaulting  may  be  performed  with  or  without  rimning. 
The  beginner  may  at  first  be  allowed  a  run  of  a  few'paces, 
ending  in  a  preparatory  spring ;  and  he  may  afterwards 
be  allowed  only  a  spring. 

OBLiaUE   VAULTING. 

Mounting  and  Dismounting. 

To  mount,  the  vaulter  must  place  himself  in  front  of 
the  bar ;  make  a  preparatory  spring  with  the  feet  close ; 
fix  at  that  moment  both  hands  upon  the  bar  ;  heave  him- 
self up ;  and  swing  the  right  .leg  over.  The  body,  sup- 
ported by  the  hands,  may  then  easily  descend  into  the 
riding  position.  * 

To  dismount,  the  vaulter,  supported  by  the  hands,  must 


OiJLiaUE   VAULTING.  39 

extend  the  feet,  make  a  little  swing  forward,  and  a  great- 
er one  backward,  so  as  to  heave  both  feet  behind  over  the 
bar,  and  spring  to  the  ground  with  them  close. 


Going  Over. 

To  do  this,  the  vaulter  must  first  clearly  define  to  him- 
self the  place  where  he  intends  to  fall. 

Having  placed  both  hands  upon  the  bar,  he  must  first 
bend  and  then  extend  the  joints,  so  as  to  raise  the  body 
with  all  his  strength,  and  throw  his  legs,  kept  close,  high 
over  the  bar.~(Plate  IV.  Figure  1.)  When  the  right 
hand  (if  he  vault  to  the  right)  quits  the  bar,  the  left  re- 
mains, the  feet  reach  the  ground  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
he  falls  on  both  feet,  with  the  knees  projected,  and  the 
hands  ready,  if  necessary,  to  break  the  fall. 

In  vaulting  to  the  right,  the  left  foot  passes  in  the 
space  which  was  between  both  hands,  the  right  hand 
quits  the  bar,  and  the  left  guides  the  body  in  the  descent. 
In  vaulting  to  the  left,  the  right  foot  passes  in  the  space 
which  was  between  both  hands,  the  left  hand  quits  the  bar, 
and  the  right  guides  the  body  in  its  descent. 

As,  however,  it  is  difficult  for  beginners  to  vault  either 
way,  this  is  not  to  be  attempted  until  after  sufficient  prac- 
tice in  the  way  which  may  be  easiest. 

After  some  practice,  the  vaulter  may,  with  a  prepara- 
tory spring,  try  the  following  heights : 

1st.  That  of  the  pit  of  the  stomach; 

2dly.  That  of  a  middling  sized  horse ; 

3dly.  His  own  height,  or  more. 


40  VAULTING. 


STRAIGHTFORWARD  VAULTING. 


For  this  purpose,  both  hands  must  be  placed  at  such 
distance  on  the  bar  as  to  give  room  for  the  feet  between 
them;  the  body  must  be  forcibly  raised ;  the  knees  must 
be  drawn  up  towards  the  breast ;  and  the  feet  must  come 
between  the  hands,  without  moving  them  from  their 
place.— (Plate  IV.  Figure  2.) 

This  should  be  practised  until  it  can  be  done  easily. 


This  straightforward  vault  may  have  three  different 
terminations. 

When  the  feet  are  in  the  space  between  the  hands,  the 
vaulter  may  stand  upright.  He  may  pass  his  feet  to  the 
opposite  side,  whilst  he  seats  himself.  He  may  continue 
the  leap  over  the  seat,  through  the  arms,  letting  both 
hands  go  at  once  after  the  legs  have  passed. 


41 


BALANCING 


fiALANUNG  IN  GENERAL. 

Balancing  is  the  art  of  preserving  the  stability  of  the 
body  upon  a  narrow  or  a  moving  surface. 

The  balancing  bar  consists  of  a  round  and  tapering 
pole,  supported  horizontally,  about  three  feet  from  the 
ground,  by  upright  posts,  one  at  its  thicker  extremity,  and 
another  about  the  middle;  between  the  parts  of  which  it 
may  be  raised  or  lowered,  by  means  of  an  iron  peg  pas- 
sing through  holes  in  their  sides.  The  unsupported  end 
of  the  bar  wavers,  of  course,  when  stepped  upon. — (Plate 
V). 

The  upper  surface  of  the  bar,  being  smooth  in  dry 
weather,  the  soles  of  the  shoes  should  be  damped;  the 
ground  about  the  bar  should  consist  of  sand ;  and  the  ex- 
ercises should  be  cautiously  performed. 


POSITION  AND  ACTION  IN  BALANQNG* 

In  this  exercise,  the  head  should  be  held  up,  the  body 
erect,  the  shoulders  back,  the  arms  extended,  the  hands 
shut,  and  the  feet  turned  outwards. 

At  first,  the  balancer  may  be  a  few  times  conducted 
along  the  bar ;  but  he  must  gradually  receive  less  and 
less  assistance,  till  at  last  the  assistant  only  remains  by 
his  side. 

The  pole  may  be  mounted  either  from  the  ground,  or 
from  the  riding  position  on  the  beam.    In  the  latter  case. 


42  BALANCING. 

the  bjilanrcr  may  raise  the  ri^ht  foot,  place  it  flat  on  the 
beam,  with  the  lieal  near  the  upjier  part  of  the  thigh,  and 
rise  on  tlio  ]H)int  of  the  foot,  carrying  the  weight  of  the 
body  before  him.— (Plate  V.  Figure  1). 

In  this  case,  the  beam  must  not  be  touched  with  the 
hands';  the  left  leg  must  hang  perpendicularly,  with  the 
toe  towards  the  ground ;  and  the  arms  must  be  stretched 
forward. 

After  keeping  the  balance  for  some  minutes  in  this  po- 
sition, he  must  stretch  the  left  leg  out  before  him,  place 
his  heel  on  the  middle  of  the  beam,  with  the  toe  well  turn- 
c<l  outward,  ami  transfer  the  weight  of  the  body  from 
the  point  of  the  right  foot  to  the  left  heel.— (Plate  V.  Fig- 
ure '2). 

These  steps  he  must  perform  allenmtely  till  he  reaches 
the  end  of  the  beam. 


TURNS,  ETC.  IN  BALANCING. 

When  the  balancer  is  able  to  walk  firmly  and  in  good 
position  along  the  bar,  and  to  spring  otf  whenever  he  may 
lose  his  balance,  he  may  attempt  to  turn  round,  first  at  the 
broad,  then  at  the  narrow  end,  ami  to  return. 

Tic  may  next  try  to  go  backward. 

In  going  backward,  it  is  no  longer  the  heel,  but  the  tip 
of  the  toes,  which  receives  the  weight ;  the  leg  which 
hangs  being  stretchwd  backward,  with  the  hip,  knee,  and 
heel  forming  a  right  angle,  till  the  toes,  by  a  transverse 
n\olion,  are  so  placed  on  the  middle  ot  the  beam,  that  the 
balancer  can  safely  transfer  to  them  the  whole  weight  of 
the  body. 

To  acquire  the  art  of  pa.ssing  an  obstacle  placed  later- 
ally, two  balancers  may  pass  each  other. 


TURNSETC.INBA  LANCING.  43 

For  this  purpose,  they  hold  one  another  fast  by  the  arms, 
advance  breast  to  breast,  place  each  his  right  foot  close 
forward  to  that  of  his  comrade,  across  the  bar. — (Plate 
V.  Figure  3),  and  turn  completely  round  each  other  by 
each  stepping  with  his  left  foot  round  the  right  one  of  the 
other,  as  at  Figure  4. 

To  acquire  the  art  of  passing  an  obstacle  placed  inferi- 
orly,  a  large  stone  may  be  laid  upon  the  bar,  or  a  stick 
may  be  held  before  the  balancer,  about  the  height  of  the 
knee.— (Plate  V.  Figure  5). 

To  acquire  the  art  of  carrying  any  body,  the  balancer 
may  at  first  walk  along  the  bar  with  his  hands  folded  across 
his  breast,  instead  of  using  them  to  balance  himself;  and 
lie  may  afterwards  carry  bodies  of  various  magnitudes. 


44 


SKATING. 


SKATING  IM  GENERAL. 

Skating  is  the  art  of  balancing  the  body,  while,  by  the 
impulse  of  each  foot  alternately,  it  moves  rapidly  upon 
the  ice. 

CONSTRUCTION   OP  THE  SKATE. 

The  wood  of  the  skate  should  be  slightly  hollowed,  so 
as  to  adapt  it  to  the  ball  of  the  foot ;  and  as  the  heel  of 
the  boot  must  be  thick  enough  to  admit  the  peg,  it  may  be 
well  to  lower  the  wood  of  the  skate  corresponding  to  the 
heel,  so  as  to  permit  the  foot  to  regain  that  degree  of  hor- 
izontal position  which  it  would  otherwise  lose  by  the 
height  ot  the  heel ;  for  the  more  of  the  foot  that  is  in 
contact  with  the  skate,  the  more  firmly  will  these  be  at- 
tached. 

As  the  tread  of  the  skate  should  correspond  as  nearly 
as  possible  with  that  of  the  foot,  the  wood  of  the  skate 
should  be  of  the  same  length  as  the  boot  or  shoe. 

The  irons  should  be  of  good  steel,  well  secured  in  the 
wood. 

The  irons  should  pass  beyond  the  screw  at  the  heel 
nearly  as  far  as  the  wood  itself;  but  the  bows  of  the  iron 
should  not  project  much  beyond  the  wood. 

If  the  skate  project  much  beyond  the  wood,  the  whole 
foot,  and  more  especially  its  hind  part,  must  be  raised 
considerably  from  the  ice  when  the  front  or  bow  of  the 
skate  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it;  and,  as  the  skater  de- 


THESKATE.  45 

pends  upon  this  part  for  the  power  of  his  stroke,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  that  must  be  greatly  diminished  by  the  general 
distance  of  the  foot  from  the  ice. 

In  short,  if  the  skate  be  too  long,  the  stroke  will  be  fee- 
ble and  the  back  of  the  leg  painfully  cramped ;  if  it  be 
too  short,  the  footing  will  be  proportionally  unsteady  and 
tottering. 

As  the  position  of  the  person  in  the  act  of  skating  is 
never  vertical,  and  is  sometimes  very  much  inclined,  and 
as  considerable  exertion  of  the  muscles  of  the  leg  is  re- 
quisite to  keep  the  ankle  stiff,  this  ought  to  be  relieved  by 
the  lowness  of  the  skates. 

Seeing,  then,  that  the  closer  the  foot  is  to  the  ice  the 
less  is  the  strain  on  the  ankle,  it  is  clear  that  the  foot 
ought  to  be  brought  as  near  to  the  ice  as  is  possible,  with- 
out danger  of  bringing  the  sole  of  the  shoe  in  contact 
with  it,  while  traversing  on  the  edge  of  the  skate.  The 
best  height  is  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch. 

The  iron  should  be  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 

The  grooved  or  fluted  skate,  if  ever  useful,  is  of  use 
only  for  boys,  or  for  very  light  persons,  whose  weight  is 
not  sufficient  to  catch  the  ice  in  a  hard  frost.  They 
certainly  should  never  be  used  by  a  person  who  is  heavi- 
er than  a  boy  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age  usual- 
ly is. because  the  sharp  edge  too  easily  cuts  into  the  ice, 
and  prevents  figaring. 

Fluted  skates,  indeed,  are  even  dangerous;  for  the 
Bnow  or  ice  cuttings  are  apt  to  collect  and  consolidate  in 
the  grooves,  till  the  skater  is  raised  from  the  edge  of  hi? 
skate  and  thrown. 


46  SKATING, 

In  the  general  inclination  of  the  foot  in  skating,  no 
edge  can  have  greater  power  than  that  of*  rectangu- 
lar shape ;  the  tendency  of  its  action  is  downwards,  cut- 
ting through  rather  than  sliding  on  the  surface ;  and 
greater  hold  than  this  is  unnecessary. 

The  irons  of  skates  must  be  kept  well  and  sharply 
ground.  This  should  be  done  across  the  stone,  so  as  to 
give  the  bottom  of  the  skate  so  slight  a  concavity,  as  to 
be  imperceptible,  which  ensures  an  edge  whose  angle  is 
not  greater  than  right. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  one  edge  is  not  higher  than 
the  other;  so  that,  when  the  skate  is  placed  upon  an  even 
surface,  it  may  stand  quite  perpendicularly. 

The  wear  of  the  iron  not  being  great  with  a  beginner 
one  grinding  will  generally  last  him  through  an  ordinary 
•winter's  skating  on  clean  ice. 

The  bottom  of  the  iron  should  be  a  little  curved  :  for, 
if  perfectly  straight,  it  would  be  capable  of  describing  only 
a  straight  line  whereas  the  skaters'  progress  must  be  cir- 
cular, because,  in  order  to  bring  the  edge  to  bear,  the  body 
must  be  inclined,  and  inclination  can  be  preserved  only  in 
circular  motion. 

This  curve  of  the  iron  should  be  part  of  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  about  two  feet.  Thai  shape  enables  the  skater  to 
turn  his  toe  or  heel  outwards  or  inwards  with  facility. 

A  screw  would  have  a  firmer  hold  than  a  mere  peg  in 
the  hole  of  the  boot ;  but,  as  it  is  less  easily  removed,  ska- 
ters generally  prefer  the  peg.  The  skater  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  bore  a  larger  hole  in  the  heel  than  is  sufficient 
to  admit  the  peg. 


DRESSOPTHESKATER.  47 

The  more  simple  the  fastenings  of  the  skate  are,  the 
better.  The  two  straps,  namely,  the  cross  strap  over  the 
toe,  and  the  heel  strap,  cannot  be  improved,  unless  per- 
haps by  passing  one  strap  through  the  three  bores,  and  so 
making  it  serve  for  both. 


Before  going  on  the  ice,  the  young  skater  must  learn  to 
tie  on  the  skates,  and  may  also  learn  to  walk  with  them 
easily  in  a  room,  balancing  alternately  on  each  foot. 


DRESS  OF  THE  SKATER. 

A  skater's  dress  should  be  as  close  and  unincumbered 
as  possible.  Large  skirts  get  entangled  with  his  own 
limbs,  or  those  of  the  persons  who  pass  near  him  ,*  and 
all  lulness  of  dress  is  exposed  to  the  wind. 

Loose  trowsers,  frocks,  and  more  especially  great  coats, 
must  be  avoided ;  and,  indeed,  by  wearing  additional  un- 
der-clothing, they  can  always  be  dispensed  with. 

As  the  exercise  of  skating  produces  perspiration,  flan- 
nel next  the  chest,  shoulders,  and  loins,  is  necessary, 
to  avoid  the  evils  produced  by  sudden  chills  in  cold 
weather. 

The  best  dress  for  this  exercise  is  what  is  called  a  dress- 
coat  buttoned,  tight  pantaloons,  and  laced  boots  (having 
the  heel  no  higher  than  is  necessary  for  the  peg)  which 
hold  the  foot  tightly  and  steadily  in  its  place,  as  well  as 


48  SKATING 


•^ 


give  the  best  support  to  the  ankle ;  for  it  is  of  no  use  to 
draw  the  straps  of  the  skate  hard,  if  the  boot  or  shoe  be 
loose. 


PRELIMINARY  AND  GENERAL  DIRECTIONS. 

Either  very  rough  or  very  smooth  ice  should  be  avoid- 
ed. 

The  person  who  for  the  first  time  ventures  on  the  ice, 
must  not  trust  to  a  stick.  He  may  make  a  friend's  hand 
his  support,  if  he  require  one ;  but  that  should  be  soon 
relinquished,  in  order  to  balance  himself.  He  will  prol>- 
ably  scramble  about  for  half  an  hour  or  so,  till  he  begins 
to  find  out  where  the  edge  of  his  skate  is. 

The  following  directions  will  be  useful ; 

The  beginner  must  be  fearless,  but  not  violent ;  not 
even  in  a  hurry. 

He  must  not  let  his  feet  get  far  apart,  and  must  keep 
his  heels  still  nearer  together. 

He  must  keep  the  ankle  of  the  foot  on  the  ice  quite 
firm ;  not  attemping  to  gain  the  edge  of  the  skate  by 
bending  it,  because  the  right  mode  of  getting  to  either 
edge  is  by  the  inclination  of  the  whole  body  in  the  direc- 
tion required ;  and  this  inclination  should  be  made  fear- 
lessly and  decisively. 

He  must  keep  the  leg  which  is  on  the  ice  perfectly 
straight ;  for  though  the  knee  must  be  somewhat  bent  at 
the  time  of  striking,  it  must  be  straightened  as  quickly  as 
possible  without  any  jerk.' 

The  leg  which  is  off  the  ice  should  also  be  kept  straight, 
though  not  stiff,  having  an  easy  though  slight  play,  the  toe 


PEELIMINARY   AND  GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.    49 

pointing  downwards,  and  the  heel  being  kept  within  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  of  the  other. 

He  must  not  look  down  at  the  ice,  nor  at  the  feet,  to  see 
how  they  perform. 

He  may  at  first  incline  his  body  a  little  forward,  for 
safety,  but  must  hold  his  head  up,  and  see  where  he  goes. 

He  must  keep  his  person  erect,  and  his  face  rather  ele- 
vated than  otherwise,  but  not  affectedly. 

When  once  off,  he  must  bring  both  feet  up  together, 
and  strike  again,  as  soon  as  he  finds  himself  steady  enough. 

While  skating,  he  must  rarely  allow  both  feet  to  be  on 
the  ice  together. 

The  position  of  the  arms  should  be  easy  and  varied ; 
one  being  always  more  raised  than  the  other,  this  eleva- 
tion being  alternate,  and  the  change  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  legs:  that  is,  the  right  arm  being  raised  as  the 
right  leg  is  put  down,  and  vice  versd,  so  that  the  arm  and 
leg  of  the  same  side  may  not  be  raised  together. 

The  face  must  be  always  turned  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  intended  to  be  described.  Hence,  in  backward  skat- 
ing, the  head  will  be  inclined  much  over  the  shoulder ;  in 
forward  skating,  but  slightly. 

All  sudden'and  violent  action  must  be  avoided. 

Stopping  may  be  caused  by  slightly  bending  the  knees, 
drawing  the  feet  together,  inclining  the  body  lorward, 
and  pressing  on  the  heels.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  turn- 
ing short  to  the  right  or  left,  the  foot  on  the  .side  to  which 
we  turn  being  rather  more  advanced,  and  supporting 
part  of  the  weight. 

4 


50  SKATING. 


THE    ORDINARY   RUN,    OR  INSIDE   EDGE  FORWARD. 

The  first  attempt  of  the  beginner  is  to  walk,  and  this 
walk  shortly  becomes  a  sliding  gait. 

This  is  done  entirely  on  the  inside  edge  of  the  skate. 

The  first  impulse  is  to  be  gained  by  pressing  the  inside 
edge  of  one  skate  against  the  ice^  and  advancing  with  the 
opposite  foot. 

To  effect  this,  the  beginner  must  bring  the  feet  nearly 
together,  turn  the  left  somewhat  out,  and  place  the  right 
a  little  in  advance,  and  at  right  angles  with  it ;  lean  for- 
ward with  the  right  shoulder,  and  at  the  same  time  move 
the  right  foot  onwards,  and  press  sharply,  or  strike  the 
ice,  with  the  inside  edge  of  the  left  skate, — care  being 
taken  instantly  to  throw  his  weight  on  the  right  foot. — 
(Plate  VI.  Figure  1.) 

While  thus  in  motion,  the  skater  must  bring  up  the  left 
foot  nearly  to  a  level  with  the  other,  and  may  for  the  pres- 
ent proceed  a  short  way  on  both  feet. 

He  must  next  place  the  left  foot  in  advance  in  its  turn, 
bring  the  left  shoulder  forward,  inclining  to  that  side_ 
strike  from  the  inside  edge  of  the  right  skate,  and  proceed 
as  before. 

F  inally,  this  motion  has  only  to  be  repeated  on  each 
foot  alternately,  gradually  keeping  the  foot  from  which  he 
struck  longer  off  the  ice,  till  he  has  gained  sufficient 
command  of  himself  to  keep  it  off  altogether,  and  is  able 
to  strike  directly  from  one  to  the  other,  without  at  any 
time  having  them  both  on  the  ice  together. 


THE   FORWARD   ROLL.  51 

Having  practised  this  till  he  has  gained  some  degree  oi 
firmness  and  power,  and  a  command  of  his  balance,  he 
may  proceed  to 

THE  FORWARD   ROLL,    OR  OUTSIDE  EDGE, 

This  is  commonly  reckoned  the  first  step  to  figure 
skating,  as,  when  it  is  once  effected,  the  rest  follows  with 
ease. 

The  impulse  for  the  forward  roll  is  gained  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  ordinary  run ;  but,  to  get  on  the  out- 
side edge  of  the  right  foot,  the  moment  that  foot  is  in  mo- 
tion, the  skater  mast  advance  the  left  shoulder,  throw  the 
right  arm  back,  look  over  the  right  shoulder,  and  inclme 
the  whole  person  boldly  and  decisively  to  that  side,  keep- 
ing the  left  foot  suspended  behind,  with  its  toe  closely 
pointed  to  the  heel  of  the  right. — (Plate  VI.  Figure  2.) 

As  he  proceeds,  he  must  bring  the  left  foot  past  the  in- 
side of  the  right,  with  a  slight  jerk,  which  produces  an 
opposing  balance  of  the  body ;  the  right  foot  must  quickly 
press,  first  on  the  outside  of  the  heel,  then  on  the  inside 
of  its  toe  ;  the  left  foot  must  be  placed  down  before  it,  be- 
fore it  is  removed  more  than  about  eight  or  ten  inches 
from  the  other  foot ;  and,  by  striking  outside  to  the  left, 
and  giving  at  the  same  moment  a  strong  push  with  the 
inside  of  the  right  toe,  the  skater  passes  from  right  ro  left, 
inclining  to  the  left  side,  in  the  same  manner  as  he  did  to 
the  right. 

The  skater  then  continues  to  change  from  left  to  right, 
and  from  right  to  left  in  the  same  manner. 

He  must  not  at  first  remain  long  upon  one  leg,  nor 


52  SKATING. 

scruple  occasionally  to  put  the  other  down  to  assist.  And 
throughout  he  must  keep  himself  erect,  leaning  most  on 
the  heel. 


The  Dutch  travelling  roll  is  done  on  the  outside  edge 
forward,  in  the  manner  just  represented,  except  that  there 
is  described  a  small  segment  of  a  very  large  circle,  thus : 


diverging  from  the  straight  line  no  more  than  is  requisite 
to  keep  the  skate  on  its  edge. 


The  cross  roll  or  figure  8  is  also  done  on  the  outside 
edge  forward. 

This  is  only  the  completion  of  the  circle  on  the  outside 
edge  ;  and  it  is  performed  by  crossing  the  legs,  and  strik- 
ing from  the  outside  instead  of  the  inside  edge. 

In  order  to  do  this,  as  the  skater  draws  to  the  close  of 
the  stroke  on  his  right  leg,  he  must  throw  the  left  quite 
across  it,  which  will  cause  him  to  press  hard  on  the  out- 
side of  the  right  skate,  from  which  he  must  immediately 
strike,  at  the  same  time  throwing  back  the  left  arm,  and 
looking  over  the  left  shoulder,  to  bring  him  well  upon  the 
outside  of  that  skate.  By  completing  the  circle  in  this 
manner  on  each  leg,  the  8  is  formed : 


FIGURE    OP   THREE.  53 

each  circle  being  small,  complete  and  well-formed  before 
the  foot  is  changed. 


The  Mercury  Figure  is  merely  the  outside  and  inside 
forward  succeeding  each  other  on  the  same  leg  alternate- 
ly, by  which  a  serpentine  line  is  described  thus: 
Outside.  Inside.  Outside. 


This  is  skated  with  the  force  and  rapidity  gained  by  a 
run.  When  the  run  is  complete,  and  the  skater  on  the 
outside  edge,  his  person  becomes  quiescent,  in  the  atti- 
tude of  Mercary,  having  the  right  arm  advanced  and 
much  raised,  the  face  turned  over  the  right  shoulder,  and 
the  left  foot  off  the  ice,  a  short  distance  behind  the  other, 
turned  out  and  pointed. 


FIGURE  OF  THREE,   OR  INSIDE  EDGE  BACKWARD. 


This  figure  is  formed  by  turning  from  the  outside  edge 
forward  to  the  inside  edge  backward  on  the  same  foot. 

The  head  of  the  3  is  formed  like  the  half  circle,  on  the 
heel  of  the  outside  edge;  but  when  the  half  circle  is  com- 
plete, the  skater  leans  suddenly  forward,  and  rests  on 
the  same  toe  inside,  and  a  backward  motion,  making  the 
tail  of  the  3,  is  the  consequence, 


54  SKATING. 

The  figure  described  by  the  right  leg  should  be  nearly 
in  the  form  of  No.  1 ;  and  on  the  left  leg  should  be  re- 
versed, and  resemble  No.  2. 


At  first,  the  skater  should  not  throw  himself  quite  so 
hard  as  hitherto  on  the  outside  forward,  in  order  that  he 
may  be  able  the  more  easily  to  change  to  the  inside  back. 
He  may  also  be  for  some  time  contented  with  much  less 
than  a  semicircle  before  he  turns. 

Having  done  this,  and  brought  the  left  leg  nearly  up  to 
the  other,  the  skater  must  not  pass  it  on  in  advance,  as 
he  would  to  complete  a  circle,  but  must  throw  it  gently 
off  sidewise,  at  the  same  moment  turning  the  face  from 
the  right  to  the  left  shoulder,  and  giving  the  whole  person 
a  slight  inclination  to  the  left  side,  These  actions  throw 
the  skater  upon  the  inside  of  his  skate ;  but  as  the  first 
impulse  should  still  retain  most  of  its  force,  he  continues 
to  move  on  the  inside  back,  in  a  direction  so  little  differ- 
ent, that  his  first  impulse  loses  little  by  the  change. — 
(Plate  VII.  Figure  1.) 

If  unable  to  change  the  edge  by  this  method,  the  skat- 
er may  assist  himself  by  slightly  and  gently  swinging  the 
arm  and  leg  outward,  so  as  to  incline  the  person  to  a  ro- 
tatory motion.  This  swing,  however,  must  be  corrected 
as  soon  as  the  object  is  attained;  and  it  must  generally 
be  observed  that  the  change  from^edge  to  edge  is  to  be 
efl:ected  merely  by  the  inclination  of  the  body,  not  by 
swinsrins. 


outsideedgebackward,  55 

When  the  skater  is  able  to  join  the  ends  of  the  3,  so  as 
to  form  one  side  of  a  circle,  then  by  striking  off  in  the 
same  manner,  and  completing  another  3,  with  the  left  leg, 
the  combination  of  the  two  3's  will  form  an  8, 

In  the  first  attempts,  the  3  should  not  be  made  above  two 
feet  long,  which  the  skater  will  acquire  the  power  of  do- 
ing almost  imperceptibly.  He  may  then  gradually  ex- 
tend the  size  as  he  advances  in  the  art. 

Though,  in  this  section,  backward  skating  is  spoken  of, 
the  term  refers  to  the  skate  only,  which  in  such  case 
moves  heel  foremost,  but  the  person  of  the  skater  moves 
side  wise,  the  face  being  always  turned  in  the  direction  in 
which  he  is  proceeding. 


OUTSIDE  EDGE  BACKWARDS. 

Here  the  skater,  having  completed  the  3,  and  being 
carried  on  by  the  first  impulse,  still  continues  his  progress 
in  the  same  direction,  but  on  the  other  foot,  putting  it 
down  on  its  outside  edge,  and  continuing  to  go  back- 
wards slowly.    Thus  is  formed  the  following  figure : 


To  accomplish  this,  the  skater,  after  making  the  3,  and 
placing  the  outside  edge  of  his  left  foot  on  the  ice.  should 
at  once  turn  his  face  over  the  right  shoulder,  raise  his 
right  foot  from  the  ice,  and  throw  back  his  right  arm  and 
shoulder.— (Plate  VII.  Figure  2.) 


56  SKATING. 

If,  for -awhile,  the  skater  is  unable  readily  to  raise  that 
foot  which  has  made  the  3,  and  leave  himself  on  the  out- 
side of  the  other  skate,  he  may  keep  both  down  for  some 
distance,  putting  himself,  however,  in  attitude  of  being 
on  the  outside  only  of  one  skate,  and  gradually  lifting  the 
other  off  the  ice  as  he  acquires  ability. 

When  finishing  any  figure,  this  use  of  both  feet  back- 
ward has  great  convenience  and  beauty. 

Before  venturing  on  the  outside  backward,  the  skater 
ought  to  take  care  that  the  ice  is  clear  of  stones,  reeds,  &c. 
and  must  also  be  certain  of  the  good  quality  of  his  irons. 

When  going  with  great  force  backward,  the  course  may 
be  deflected  so  as  to  stop  by  degrees ;  and,  when  moving 
slowly,  the  suspended  foot  may  be  put  down  in  a  cross  di- 
rection to  the  path. 


Such,  then,  are  the  four  movements  of  which  alone  the 
skate  is  capable;  namely,  the  inside  edge  forward;  the 
outside  forward;  the  inside  back;  and  the  outside  back; 
in  which  has  been  seen  how  the  impulse  for  the  first  two 
is  gained,  and  how  the  third  flows  from  the  second,  and 
the  fourth  from  the  third.  By  the  combination  of  these 
elements  of  skating,  and  the  variations  with  which  they 
succeed  each  other,  are  formed  all  the  evolutions  in  this 
art. 

The  Double  Three  is  that  combination  in  which  the 
skates  are  brought  from  the  inside  back  of  the  first  three  to 
the  outside  forward  of  the  second. 

Here  the  skater,  after  having  completed  one  3,  and 


THEBACKROLL.  57 

being  on  the  inside  back,  must  bring  the  whole  of  the  left 
side  forward,  particularly  the  leg,  till  it  is  thrown  almost 
across  the  right,  on  which  he  is  skating.  This  action 
brings  him  once  more  to  the  outside  forward,  from  which 
he  again  turns  to  the  inside  back.  While  he  is  still  in 
motion  on  the  second  inside  back  of  the  right  leg,  he  must 
strike  on  the  left,  and  repeat  the  same  on  that. 

It  is  at  first  enough  to  do  two  3's  perfectly  and  smooth- 
ly. Their  number  from  one  impulse  may  be  increased 
as  the  skater  gains  steadiness  and  skill ;  the  art  of  ac- 
complishing this  being  to  touch  as  lightly  as  possible  on 
each  side  of  the  skate  successively,  so  that  the  first  im- 
pulse may  be  preserved  and  made  the  most  of. 


The  Back  Roll  is  a  means  of  moving  from  one  foot  to 
another. 

Suppose  the  skater  to  have  put  himself  on  the  outside 
edge  back  of  the  left  leg,  with  considerable  impulse,  by 
means  of  the  3  performed  on  the  right,  not  bearing  hard 
on  the  edge,  for  the  object  is  to  change  it,  and  take  up 
the  motion  on  the  right  foot,— this  is  effected  by  throwing 
the  left  arm  and  shoulder  back,  and  turning  the  face  to 
look  over  them ;  when,  having  brought  the  inside  of  his 
left  skate  to  bear  on  the  ice,  he  must  immediately  strike 
from  it  to  the  outside  back  of  the  other,  by  pressing  it  into 
the  ice  as  forcibly  as  he  can  at  the  toe.  Having  thus 
been  brought  to  the  backward  roll  on  the  right  foot,  he 
repeats  the  same  with  it. 

The  Back  Cross  Roll  is  done  by  changing  the  balance 


58  SKATING. 

1 

of  the  body,  to  move  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  the  Back  Roll. 

Here  the  stroke  is  from  the  outside  instead  of  the  in- 
side edge  of  the  skate;  the  edge  on  which  he  is  skating  not 
being  changed,  but  the  right  foot  which  is  off  the  ice,  be- 
ing crossed  at  the  back  of  the  left,  and  put  down,  and  the 
stroke  taken  at  the  same  moment,  from  the  outside  edge 
of  the  left  skate  at  the  toe. 

As  in  the  back  roll  of  both  forms,  the  strokes  are  but 
feeble,  the  skater  may,  from  time  to  time,  renew  his  im- 
pulse as  he  finds  occasion,  by  commencing  anew  with 
the  3. 

The  large  outside  backward  roll  is  attained  by  a  run, 
when  the  skater  having  gained  all  the  impulse  he  can, 
strikes  on  the  outside  forward  of  the  right  leg,  turns  the 
3,  and  immediately  puts  down  the  left  on  the  outside  back. 
He  then,  without  further  effiDrt,  flies  rapidly  over  the  ice; 
the  left  arm  being  raised,  the  head  turned  over  the  right 
shoulder,  and  the  right  foot  turned  out  and  pointed 


It  must  now  be  evident,  that  the  elements  described 
maybe  combined  and  varied  infinitely.  Hence  waltz 
and  quadrille  skating,  &c.  which  maybe  described  as  com- 
binations of  3's,  outside  backwads,  &c.  These  are  left  to 
the  judgment  of  the  skater,  and  his  skill  in  the  art. 

As  to  feats  in  skating,  we  are  told,  that  the  Frieslander, 
who  is  generally  a  skilful  skater,  often  goes  for  a  long 
time  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  In  1808,  two 
young  women,  going  thirty  miles  in  two  hours,  won  the 


METHOD     OP    TREATMENTj     ETC.  59 

prize  in  a  skating  race  at  Groningen.  In  1821,  a  Lin- 
colnshire man,  for  a  wager  of  100  guineas,  skated  one 
mile  within  two  seconds  of  three  minutes. 


METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 

RECOMMENDED  BY  THE   HUMANE   SOCIETY  IN  THE  CASE   OP 
DROWNED   PERSONS. 

CAUTIONS. 

1.  Lose  no  time.  2.  Avoid  all  rough  usage.  3,  Nev- 
er hold  the  body  up  by  the  feet.  4.  Nor  roll  the  body  on 
casks.  5.  Nor  rub  the  body  with  salt  or  spirits.  6.  Nor 
inject  tobacco  smoke  or  infusion  of  tobacco. 

RESTORATIVE   MEANS,  IP   APPARENTLY   DROWNED. 

Send  quickly  for  Tnedical  assistance ;  but  do  not  delay  the 
follovnng  means. 

I.  Convey  the  body  carefully,  with  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders supported  in  a  raised  position,  to  the  nearest  house. 

II.  Strip  the  body,  and  rub  it  dry;  then  wrap  it  in  hot 
blankets,  and  place  it  in  a  warm  bed  in  a  warm  chamber. 

III.  Wipe  and  cleanse  the  mouth  and  nostrils. 

IV.  In  order  to  restore  the  natural  warmth  of  the  body : 

1.  Move  a  heated  covered  warming-pan  over  the  back 
and  spine. 

2.  Put  bladders  or  bottles  of  hot  water,  or  heated 
bricks,  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the  arm-pits,  between 
the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet. 


60  SKATING. 

3.  Foment  the  body  with  hot  flannels ;  but,  if  possible, 

4.  Immerse  the  body  in  a  warm  bath,  as  hot  as  the 
hand  can  bear  without  pain,  as  this  is  preferable  to  the 
other  means  for  restoring  warmth. 

5.  Rubthebodybriskly  with  the  hand;  do  not,  howev- 
er, suspend  the  use  of  the  other  means  at  the  same  time. 

V.  In  order  to  restore  breathing,  introduce  the  pipe  of 
a  common  bellows  (where  the  apparatus  of  the  society  is 
not  at  hand)  into  one  nostril,  carefully  closing  the  other 
and  the  mouth  ;  at  the  same  time  draw  downwards,  and 
push  gently  backwards  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe, 
to  allow  a  more  free  admission  of  air  ;  blow  the  bellows 
gently  in  order  to  inflate  the  lungs,  till  the  breast  be  a 
little  raised ;  the  mouth  and  nostrils  should  then  be  set 
free;  and  a  moderate  pressure  should  be  made  with  the 
hand  upon  the  chest.    Repeat  this  process  till  life  appears. 

VI.  Electricity  should  be  employed  early  by  a  medical 
assistant. 

VII.  Inject  into  the  stomach,  by  means  of  an  elastic 
tube  and  syringe,  half  a  pint  of  warm  brandy  and  water, 
or  wine  and  water. 

VIII.  Apply  sal  volatile  or  hartshorn  to  the  nostrils. 


IP  APPARENTLY   DEAD  PROM  INTENSE   COLD. 

Rub  the  body  with  snow,  ice,  or  cold  water.  Restore 
warmth  by  slow  degrees  ;  and  after  some  time,  it  neces- 
sary, employ  the  means  recommended  for  the  drowned. 
In  these  accidents,  it  is  highly  dangerous  to  apply  heat  too 
early. 


61 


CLIMBING. 


CLIMBING  IN  GENERAL. 

Climbing  is  the  art  of  transporting  the  body  in  any  di- 
rection, by  the  aid,  in  general,  both  of  the  hands  and  feet. 

The  climbing-stand  consists  of  two  strong  poles,  about 
fifteen  feet  high,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  dis- 
tant, which  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  support  a 
beam  strongly  fastened  to  them.  One  pole  is  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  diameter ;  the  other,  which  serves  as  a  mast, 
should  be  considerably  thicker ;  and  both  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  climbing.  To  the  beam  are  attached  other  im- 
plements of  climbing ;  viz.  a  ladder,  an  inclined  board, 
a  mast,  an  inclined  pole,  a  horizontal  bar,  a  rope  ladder, 
an  upright,  an  inclined,  and  level  rope.-— (Plate  VIII). 

KINDS   OF   CLIMBING. 

Climbing  on  fixed  bodies  should  first  be  practised. 
The  Ladder. 

Exercises  on  the  ladder  may  be  practised  in  the  follow- 
ing ways : 

1st.  By  ascending  and  descending  as  usual. 

2d.  With  one  hand,  carrying  something  in  the  other. 

3d.  Without  using  the  hands. 

4th.  Passing  another  on  the  front  of  the  ladder,  or 
sw^inging  to  the  back,  to  let  another  pass. 


62  CLIMBING 


The  inclined,  hoard. 

This  should  be  rather  rough,  about  two  feet  broad,  and 
two  inches  thick. 

To  climb  this,  it  is  necessary  to  seize  both  sides,  with 
the  hands,  and  to  place  the  feet  flat  in  the  middle. 

The  inclination  of  the  board  should  be  diminished  with 
the  progress  of  the  pupil. 

At  firstj  it  may  form  with  the  ground  an  angle  of  about 
thirty  degrees  ;  and  the  climber  should  not  go  more  than 
half  way  up. 

This  angle  may  gradually  be  augmented  to  a  right  an- 
gle, or  the  direction  of  the  board  may  be  made  perpen- 
dicular. 

Whe^the  board  is  thus  little  or  not  at  all  inclined,  the 
body  must  be  much  curved  inward,  and  the  legs  thrust 
up,  so  that  the  higher  one  is  nearly  even  with  the  hand. 

In  descending,  small  and  quick  steps  are  necessary. 

The  Upright  Pole. 

The  upright  pole  should  be  about  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  perfectly  smooth,  and  free  from  splinters. 

The  position  of  the  climber  is  shown  in  Plate  VIIL 
Figure  1.  where  nothing  touches  the  pole  except  the  feet, 
legs,  knees,  and  hands. 

The  climber  grasps  as  high  as  possible  with  both  hands, 
raises  himself  by  bending  the  body  and  drawing  his  legs 
up  the  pole,  holds  fast  by  them,  extends  the  body,  again 
grasps  higher  up  with  his  hands,  and  continues  the  same 
use  of  the  legs  and  arms. 


KINDSOrCLlMBlNO.  63 

The  descent  is  performed  by  sliding  down  with  the  legs, 
and  scarcely  touching  with  the  hands,  as  in  Plate  VIII. 
Figure  2. 

The  Mast. 

This  is  more  difficult,  as  it  cannot  be  grasped  with  the 
hands ;  and  it  consequently  should  not  be  practised  until 
the  climber  is  expert  in  the  previous  exercises. 

Here  the  position  of  the  legs  are  the  same  as  for  the 
pol^;  but  instead  of  grasping  the  mast,  the  climber  lays 
hold  of  his  left  arm  with  his  right  hand,  or  the  reverse, 
and  clings  to  the  mast  with  the  whole  body,  as  in  Plate 
VIII.  Figure  3. 

The  Slant  Pole. 

This  must  be  at  least  three  inches  thick. 

As  in  this  exercise,  the  hands  bear  more  of  the  weight 
than  in  climbing  the  upright  pole,  it  should  not  be  attempt- 
ed until  expertness  in  the  other  is  acquired. 

Tlie  Horizontal  or  Slightly  inclined  Bar. 

This  may  be  about  two  inches  wide  at  top,  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet  long,  and  supported  by  two  posts,  respectively 
six  and  seven  feet  high. 

The  climber  must  grasp  with  both  hands  as  high  a  part 
of  the  bar  as  he  can  reach,  and  with  arms  extended,  sup- 
port his  own  weight  as  long  as  possible. 

He  must  next  endeavor  to  bend  the  elbows  so  much 
that  one  shoulder  remains  close  under  the  bar,  as  seen 
in  Plate  VIII.  Figure  4.  Or  he  may  place  both  hands  on 
the  same  side,  and  draw  himself  up  so  far  as  to  see  over 
it,  keeping  the  legs  and  feet  close  and  extended. 


64  CLIMBING. 

He  may  then  hang  with  his  hands  fixed  on  both  sides, 
near  to  each  other,  having  the  elbows  much  bent,  the  up- 
per parts  of  ihe  arms  close  to  the  body,  and  one  shoulder 
close  under  the  bar,  may  lower  the  head  backwards,  and 
may,  at  the  same  time,  raise  the  feet  to  touch  each  other 
over  the  bar.— (Plate  VIII.  Figure  5). 

In  the  last  position,  he  may  move  the  hands  one  before 
the  other,  forward  or  backward,  and  may  either  slide  the 
feet  along  the  bar,  or  alternately  change  them  like  the 
hands,  and  retain  a  similar  hold. 

Hanging  also  by  the  hands  alone,  as  in  Plate  VlII. 
Figure  6,  he  moves  them  either  forwad  or  backward, 
keeping  the  arms  firm,  and  the  feet  close  and  extended, 
or  he  may  place  himself  in  front  of  the  bar,  hanging  by 
both  hands ,  and  move  laterally. 

Being  likewise  in  front  of  the  bar,  with  his  hands  rest- 
ing upon  it,  as  in  Plate  VIII.  Figure  7,  he  may  move  along 
the  bar  either  to  the  right  or  left. 

Being  in  the  position  of  Plate  VIII.  Figure  5,  the 
climber  may  endeavor  to  sit  upon  the  bar,  for  instance, 
on  the  right  side,  by  taking  hold  with  the  right  knee-joint 
grasping  firmly  with  the  right  hand,  and  bringing  the 
left  arm-pit  over  the  bar.  The  riding  position  is  thus  eas- 
ily obtained. 

From  the  riding  position,  he  may  by  supporting  himself 
with  one  thigh,  turn  towards  the  front  of  the  bar,  allowing 
the  leg  of  the  other  side  to  hang  down ;  and  he  may  then 
very  easily  move  along  the  bar  sidewise,  by  raising  his 
body  with  his  hands  placed  laterally  on  the  bar. 


KINDSOFCLIMEINC:.  "65 

The  Ro])c  Ladder. 

This  should  have  several  rundles  to  spread  it  out,  and 
ought  in  all  respects  to  be  so  constructed  as  not  to  twist 
and  entangle. 

The  only  difficulty  here  is  that  as  it  hangs  perpendicu- 
larly, and  is  flexible,  its  steps  are  liable  to  be  pushed  for- 
ward, and  in  that  case  the  body  is  thrown  into  an  oblique 
position,  and  the  whole  weight  falls  on  the  hands. 

To  prevent  this,  the  climber  must  keep  the  body  stretch- 
ed out  and  upright.— fPlate  VIII.  Figure  8.) 


The  Upright  Rope. 

In  this  excercise,  the  securing  the  rope  maybe  eifected 
in  various  w'ays. 

In  the  first  method,  shown  in  Plate  VIII.  Figure  9,  the 
hands  and  feet  alone  are  emplo5'ed.  The  feet  are  crossed  5 
the  rope  passes  betw^een  them,  and  is  held  fast  by  their  pres- 
sure ;  the  hands  then  grasp  higher ;  the  feet  are  drawn  up ; 
the  feet  are  again  applied  to  the  rope ;  and  the  same  pro- 
cess is  repealed. 

In  the  second,  which  is  the  sailor's  method,  shown  at 
Plate  VIII.  Figure  10,  the  rope  passes  from  the  hands, 
generally  along  the  right  thigh,  just  above  the  knee;  winds 
round  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  under  the  knee-joint,  over 
the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  across  the  instep,  whence  it 
hangs  loose ;  and  the  climber,  by  treading  with  the  left 
foot  upon  that  part  of  the  rope  where  it  crosses  the  right 
one,  is  firmly  supported.  This  mode  of  climbing  requires 
5 


66  CLIMBING. 

the  right  leg  and  foot  to  be  so  managed  that  the  rope  keeps 
its  proper  winding  whenever  it  is  quitted  by  the  left  foot. 

In  descending,  to  prevent  injury,  the  hands  must  be 
lowered:^lternately. 

To  rest  upon  the  upright  rope,  shewn  in  Plate  VIII,  Fi- 
gure 11,  the  climber  must  swing  the  right  foot  round  the 
rope,  so  as  to  wind  it  three  01  four  times  round  the  leg;  must 
turn  it,  by  means  of  the  left  foot,  once  or  twice  round  the 
right  one,  of  which  the  toes  are  to  be  bent  upwards ;  and 
must  tread  firmly  with  the  left  foot  upon  the  last  winding. 
Or,  to  obtain  a  more  perfect  rest,  he  may  lower  his  hands 
along  the  rope,  as  in  Figure  11,  hold  with  the  right  hand 
stoop,  grasp  with  the  left  the  par  of  the  rope  below  the  feet, 
raise  it  and  himself  again,  and  wind  it  round  his  should- 
ers, &c.  until  he  is  firmly  supported. 


The  Oblique  Rope. 

The  climber  must  fix  himself  to  the  rope,  as  in  Plate 
VIII.  Figure  12,  and  advance  the  hands  along  it,  as  already 
directed.  The  feet  may  move  along  the  rope  alternately  ; 
or  one  leg,  hanging  over  the  rope,  mayslide  along  it;  or, 
which  is  best,  the  sole  of  one  foot  may  be  laid  upon  the 
rope,  and  the  other  leg  across  its  instep,  so  that  the  fric- 
tion is  not  felt. 


The  Level  Rope. 

This  m  ay  have  its  ends  fastened  to  posts  of  equal  heights ; 
and  the  same  exercises  may  be  performed  upon  it. 


KINDSOFCLIMBING.  C7 


Climbing  Trees. 

In  attempting  this  exercise,  the  kind  of  the  wood  and 
strength  of  the  branches  must  be  considered. 

Summer  is  the  best  time  for  practising  it,  as  withered 
branches  are  then  most  observable ;  and  even  then  it  is 
best  to  climb  low  trees,  until  some  experience  is  acquired. 

As  the  surface  of  branches  is  smooth,  or  moist  and  slip- 
pery, the  hands  must  never  for  a  moment  be  relaxed. 

In  this  exercise,  the  agility  of  the  climber  wonderfully 
increases.  He  is  soon  able  to  save  the  trouble  of  climbieg 
the  trunk  by  seizing  a  strong  branch  hanging  low  enough 
to  be  reached  by  a  run  and  a  leap,  and  swing  himself  up, 
and  even  to  pass  from  the  branches  of  one  tree  to  those  cf 
a  contiguous  tree,  and  so  on  to  many  of  them. 


68 


SWIMMING. 


PREPARATORY   INSTRUCTIONS   ^S   TO     ATTITUDE   AND   ACTION 
IN   SWLMAUNG. 

As  it  is  on  the  movements  of  the  limbs,  and  a  certain 
attitude  of  the  body,  that  the  power  of  swimming  depends, 
its  first  principles  may  evidently  be  acquired  out  of  the 
water. 

Attitude. 

The  head  must  be  drawn  back  and  the  chin  elevated ; 
tlie  breast  must  be  projected,  and  the  back  must  be  hol- 
lowed and  kept  steady. — (Plate  IX.  Figures  1  and  2.) 

The  head  can  scarcely  be  thrown  too  much  back,  or  the 
back  too  much  hollowed.  Those  who  do  otherwise,  swim 
with  their  feet  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  instead  of 
liaving  them  two  or  three  feet  deep. 

Action  of  the  Hands 

In  the  proper  position  of  the  hands,  the  fingers  must  be 
kept  close,  with  the  thumbs  by  the  edge  of  the  fore  fingers ; 
and  the  hands  must  be  made  concave  on  the  inside,  though 
not  so  much  as  to  diminish  their  size  and  power  in  swim- 
ming. 

The  hands,  thus  formed,  should  be  placed  just  before 
the  breast,  the  wrist  touching  it,  and  the  fingers  pointing 
forward.— (Plate  X.  Figure  1.) 


A  T  T  I  T  U  D  K    I  N    S  W  I  M  M  I  N  G  .  (jj) 

The  first  elevation  is  formed  by  raising  the  enels  of  the 
fingers  three  or  four  inches  higher  than  the  rest  of  the 
hands. 

The  second  elevation  is  formed  by  raising  theouteredge 
of  the  hand  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  the  inner  edge. 

The  formation  of  the  hands,  their  first  position,  and  their 
two  modes  of  elevation,  being  clearly  understood,  the  for- 
ward stroke  with  the  hands  is  next  made,  by  projecting 
them  in  that  direction  to  their  utmost  extent,  employing 
therein  their  first  elevation,  in  order  lo  produce  buoyancy, 
but  taking  care  the  fingers  do  not  break  the  surface  of  the 
water. — (Plate  X.  Figure  2.) 

In  the  outward  stroke  of  the  hands,  the  second  elevation 
must  be  employed,  and,  in  it,  they  must  sweep  downward 
and  outward  as  low  as,  but  at  a  distance  from  the  hips, 
both  laterally  and  anteriorly.— (Plate  XL  Figures  1 
and  2.) 

The  retraction  of  the  hands,  is  affected  by  bringing  the 
arms  closer  to  the  sides,  bending  the  elbow-joints  upwards 
and  the  wrists  downwards,  so  that  the  hands  hang  down, 
w  hile  the  arms  are  raising  them  to  the  first  position. 

The  action  of  the  hands  should  be  gentle  and  easy. 

In  the  three  movements  just  described,  one  arm  may  be 
exercised  at  a  time,  until  each  is  accustomed  to  the  action. 

Action  of  the  Feet. 

In  drawing  up  the  legs,  the  knees  must  be  inclined  in- 
ward, and  the  soles  of  the  feet  outward.— (Plate  XII. 
Figure  1.) 

The  throwing  out  the  feet  must  be  to  the  extent  of  the 


7d  SWIMMING. 

legs,  as  widely  from  each  other  as  possible. — (Plate  XII. 
Figure  2.) 

The  bringing  down  the  legs  must  be  done  briskly,  until 
they  come  close  together. 

In  drawing  up  the  legs,  there  is  a  loss  of  power ;  in 
throwing  out  the  legs,  there  is  a  gain  equal  to  that  loss ; 
and  in  bringing  down  the  legs,  there  is  an  evident  gain. 

The  arms  and  legs  should  act  ahernately ;  the  arms  de- 
scending while  the  legs  are  rising  (Phte  XIII.  Figure  1 ;) 
and,  oppositely,  the  arms  rising  while  the  legs  are  de- 
scending:    Plate  XIII.  Figure  2.) 

Thus  the  action  of  both  is  unceasingly  interchanged  ; 
and  until  great  facility  in  this  interchange  is  effected,  no 
one  can  swim  smoothly,  or  keep  the  body  in  one  contin- 
ued progressive  motion. 

In  practising  the  action  of  the  legs,  one  hand  may  rest 
c->n  the  top  of  a  chair,  while  the  opposite  leg  is  exercised. 

When  both  the  arms  and  the  legs  are  separately  accus- 
tomed to  the  action,  the  arm  and  leg  of  the  same  side  may 
be  exercised  together. 


PLACE,   TIME,    ETC.    OF   SWIMMING. 

Place. 

Of  all  places  for  swimming,  the  sea  is  the  best;  running 
waters,  next ;  and  ponds,  the  worst. 

In  these,  a  particular  spot  should  be  chosen,  where 
there  is  not  much  stream,  and  which  is  known  to  be  safe. 

The  swimmer  should  make  sure  that  the  bottom  is  not 


PLACE,    TIME,    ETC.    OF    SWIMMING.  71 

out  of  his  depth  ;  and,  on  this  subject,  he  cannot  be  too 
cautious  when  he  has  no  one  with  him  who  knows  ihe 
place. 

If  he  is  capable  of  diving,  he  should  ascertain  if  the 
water  be  sufficiently  deep  for  that  purpose,  otherwise  he 
may  injure  himself  against  the  bottom. 

The  bottom  should  be  of  gravel,  or  smooth  stones,  and 
free  from  holes,  so  that  he  may  be  in  no  danger  of  sink- 
ing in  the  mud,  or  of  wounding  the  feet. 

Of  weeds  he  must  beware  ;  for,  if  his  feet  get  entan- 
gled among  them,  no  aid,  even  if  near,  may  be  able  to 
extricate  him. 

Time, 

The  best  time  of  the  year  for  swimming'is  in  the 
months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August. 

As  to  particular  times,  that  of  rain  is  bad,  for  it  chills 
the  water,  and,  by  wetting  the  clothes,  endangers  catch- 
ing cold. 

It  is  improper  also  immediately  after  a  meal. 

It  is  not  less  so  when  very  hot  or  quite  cold.  After 
violent  exercise  it  is  better  to  wash  and  employ  friction 
than  to  bathe. 

Dress. 

Every  swimmer  should  use  short  drawers,  and  might, 
in  particular  places,  use  canvass  slippers. 

It  is  even  of  great  importance  to  be  able  to  swim  in 
jacket  and  trowsers. 


72  SWIMMING. 


Aids. 

The  aid  of  the  hand  is  much  preferrable  to  corks  or 
bladders,  because  it  can.  be  withdrawn  gradually  and  in- 
sensibly. 

With  this  view,  a  grown  up  person  may  take  the  learn- 
er in  his  arms ;  carry  him  into  the  water  breast  high  ; 
place  him  nearly  flat  upon  it;  support  him  by  one  hand 
under  the  breast ;  and  direct  him  as  to  attitude  and  action. 

If  the  support  of  the  hand  be  very  gradually  withdrawn, 
the  swimmer  will,  in  the  course  of  the  first  ten  da)^s,  find 
it  quite  unnecessary. 

When  the  aid  of  the  hand  cannot  be  obtained,  inflated 
membranes  or  corks  may  be  employed. 

The  only  argument  for  their  use  is,  that  attitude  and 
action  maybe  perfected,  while  the  body  is  thus  supported, 
and  that,  with  some  contrivance,  they  also  may  gradually 
be  laid  aside,  though  by  no  means  so  easily  as  the  hand. 

The  best  mode  of  employing  corks,  is  to  choose  a  piece 
about  a  foot  long  and  six  or  seven  inches  broad ;  to  fasten 
a  band  across  the  middle  of  it;  to  place  it  on  the  back,  so 
that  the  upper  end  may  come  between  the  shoulder- 
blades,  where  the  edge  may  be  rounded ;  and  to  tie  the 
band  over  the  breast.  Over  this,  several  other  pieces  of 
cork,  each  smaller  than  the  preceding,  may  be  fixed,  so 
that,  as  the  swimmer  improves,  he  may  leave  them  off 
one  by  one. 

Even  with  all  these  aids,  the  young  swimmer  should 
never  venture  out  of  his  depth  if  he  cannot  swim  without 
them. 


CRAMP. 


Cramp. 

As  to  cramp,  those  chiefly  are  liable  to  it  who  plunge 
into  the  water  when  they  are  heated,  who  remain  in  it 
till  they  are  benumbed  with  cold,  or  who  exhaust  them- 
selves by  violent  exercise. 

Even  when  this  does  occur,  the  skilful  swimmer  knows 
how  to  reach  the  shore  by  the  aid  of  the  limbs  which  are 
unaffected,  while  the  uninstructed  one  is  liable  to  be 
drowned. 

If  attacked  in  this  way,  the  swimmer  must  strike  out 
the  limb  with  all  his  strength,  thrusting  the  heel  down- 
ward and  drawing  the  toes  upward,  notwithstanding  the 
momentary  pain  it  may  occasion.  Or,  he  may  immedi- 
ately turn  flat  on  his  back,  and  jerk  out  the  affected  limb 
in  the  air,  taking  care  not  to  elevate  it  so  high  as  greatly 
to  disturb  the  balance  of  the  body. 

If  this  do  not  succeed,  he  must  paddle  ashore  with  his 
hands,  or  keep  himself  afloat  with  their  aid,  until  assist- 
ance reach  him. 

Should  he  even  be  unable  to  float  on  his  back,  he  must 
put  himself  in  the  upright  position,  and  keep  his  head 
above  the  surface  by  merely  striking  the  water  downward 
with  his  hands  at  the  hips,  Avithout  any  assistance  from 
the  legs. 


74  SWIMMING. 


PROCEDURE   WHEN   IN   THE    WATER,    AND   USUAL   MODE    OF 
FRONT   SWIMMING. 

Entering  the  Water. 

Instructors  should  never  force  young  swimmers  reluc- 
tantly to  leap  into  the  water. 

In  entering,  the  head  should  be  wetted  first,  either  by 
plunging  in  head  foremost,  or  by  pouring  water  on  it. 

The  swimmer  should  next  advance,  by  a  clear  shelv- 
ing shore  or  bank,  where  he  has  ascertained  the  depth  by 
plumbing  or  otherwise,  till  the  water  reaches  his  breast; 
should  turn  towards  the  place  of  entrance ;  and,  having 
inflated  his  breast,  should  lay  it  upon  the  water,  sufiering 
that  to  rise  to  his  chin,  the  lips  being  closed. 

Buoyancy  in  the  Water. 

The  head  alone  is  specifically  heavier  than  salt  water. 
Even  the  legs  and  arms  are  specifically  lighter  ;  and  the 
trunk  is  still  more  so.  Thus  the  body  cannot  sink  in  salt 
water,  even  if  the  lungs  were  filled,  except  owing  to  the 
excessive  specific  gravity  of  the  head. 

Not  only  the  head,  but  the  legs  and  arms,  are  specifi- 
cally heavier  than  fresh  water  ;  but  still  the  hollowness 
of  the  trunk  renders  the  body  altogether  too  light  to  sink 
wholly  under  water,  so  that  some  part  remains  above  un- 
til the  lungs  become  filled. 

In  general,  when  the  human  body  is  immersed,  one 
eleventh  of  its  weight  remains  above  the  surface  in  fresh 
water,  and  one  tenth  in  salt  water. 


BUOYANCY     IN     THE     WATER.  75 

In  salt  water,  therefore,  a  person  throwing  himself  on 
his  back,  and  extending  his  arms,  may  easily  lay  so  as  to 
keep  his  mouth  and  nostrils  free  for  breathing ;  and,  by  a 
small  motion  of  the  hand,  may  prevent  turning,  if  he 
perceive  any  tendency  to  it. 

In  fresh  water,  a  man  cannot  long  continue  in  that  sit- 
uation, except  by  the  action  of  his  hands  on  the  water. 

If  no  such  action  be  employed,  the  legs  and  lower  part 
of  the  body  will  gradually  sink  into  an  upright  position, 
the  hollow  of  the  breast  keeping  the  head  uppermost. 

If,  however,  in  this  position,  the  head  be  kept  upright 
above  the  shoulders,  as  in  standing  on  the  ground,  the 
immersion,  owing  to  the  weight  of  the  part  of  the  head 
out  of  the  water,  will  reach  above  the  mouth  and  nostrils; 
perhaps  a  little  above  the  e3'es. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  same  position,  the  head  be 
leaned  back,  so  that  the  face  is  turned  upv/ards,  the  back 
part  of  the  head  has  its  weight  supported  by  the  water, 
and  the  face  will  rise  an  inch  higher  at  every  inspiration, 
and  will  sink  as  much  at  every  expiration  ;  but  never  so 
low  that  the  water  can  come  over  the  mouth. 

For  all  these  reasons,  though  the  impetus  given  by  the 
fall  of  the  body  into  water  occasions  its  sinking  to  a  depth 
proportioned  to  the  force  of  the  impetus,  its  natural  buoy- 
ancy soon  impels  it  again  to  the  surface,  where,  after  a 
few  oscillations  up  and  down,  it  settles  with  the  head 
free. 

Unfortunately,  ignorant  people  stretch  the  arms  out  to 
grasp  at  anything  or  nothing,  and  thereby  keep  the  head 


76  SWIMMING. 

under;  for  the  arms  and  head,  together  exceeding  in 
weight  one  tenth  of  the  body,  cannot  remain  above  the 
surface  at  the  same  time. 

The  buoyancy  of  the  trunk,  then  and  then  only,  occa- 
sions the  head  and  shoulders  to  sink,  the  ridge  of  the  bent 
back  becoming  the  portion  exposed ;  and  in  this  attitude 
water  is  swallowed,  by  which  the  specific  gravity  is  in- 
creased, and  the  body  settles  to  the  bottom. 

It  is,  then,  most  important  to  the  safety  of  the  inexperi- 
enced to  be  firmly  convinced  that  the  body  naturally  floats. 

To  satisfy  the  beginner  of  the  truth  of  this.  Dr.  Frank- 
lin advises  him  to  choose  a  place  where  clear  water  deep- 
ens gradually,  to  walk  into  it  till  it  is  up  to  his  breast,  to 
turn  his  face  to  the  shore,  and  to  throw  an  egg  into  the 
water  between  him  and  it,— so  deep  that  he  cannot  reach 
to  take  it  up  but  by  diving.  To  encourage  him  to  take  it 
up,  he  mast  reflect  that  his  progress  will  be  from  deep  to 
shallow  water,  and  that  at  any  time  he  may,  by  bringing 
his  legs  under  him,  and  standing  on  the  bottom,  raise  his 
head  far  above  the  water.  He  must  then  plunge  under  it, 
having  his  eyes  open  before  as  well  as  after  going  under; 
throw  himself  toward  the  egg ;  and  endeavor,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  his  hands  and  feet  against  the  water,  to  get  for- 
ward till  within  reach  of  it,  In  this  attempt,  he  will  find 
that  the  water  buoys  him  up  against  his  inclination ;  that 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  sink  as  he  imagines ;  and  that  he 
cannot,  but  by  force,  get  down  to  the  egg.  Thus  be 
feels  the  power  of  the  water  to  support  him,  and  learns  to 
confide  in  that  power;  while  his  endeavors  to  overcome 


ATTITUDE     AND     ACTION     IN     THE     WATER.     77 

it,  and  reach  the  egg,  teach  him  the  manner  of  acting  on 
the  water  with  his  feet  and  hands,  as  he  afterwards  must 
in  swimming,  in  order  to  support  his  head  higher  above 
the  water,  or  to  go  forward  through  it. 

If  then  any  person,  however  unacquainted  with  swim- 
ming, will  hold  himself  perfectly  still  and  upright,  as  if'' 
standing,  with  his  head  somewhat  thrown  back  so  as  to 
rest  on  the  surface,  his  face  will  remain  above  the  water, 
and  he  will  enjoy  full  freedom  of  breathing. 

To  do  this  most  effectually,  the  head  must  be  so  far 
thrown  back  that  the  chin  is  higher  than  the  forehead ;  the 
breast  must  be  inflated ;  the  back  must  be  made  quite 
hollow ;  and  the  hands  and  arms  must  be  kept  under 
water. 

If  these  directions  be  carefully  observed,  the  face  will 
float  above  the  water,  and  the  body  will  settle  in  a  diago- 
nal direction.— (Plate  XIV.  Figure  1.) 

In  this  case,  the  only  difficulty  is  to  preserve  the  balance 
of  the  body.  This  is  secured,  as  described  by  Bernardi, 
by  extending  the  arms  laterally  under  the  surface  of  the 
water,  with  the  legs  separated,  the  one  to  the  front  and 
the  other  behind;  thus  presenting  resistance  to  any  ten- 
dency of  the  body  to  incline  to  either  side,  forward  or 
backward.  This  posture  may  be  preserved  any  length  of 
time.    (Plate  XIV.  Figure  2.) 

Attitude  and  Action  in  the   Water. 

The  swimmer  having,  by  all  the  preceding  means,  ac- 
quired confidence,  may  now  practise  the  instructions  al- 
ready given  on  attitude  and  action  in  swimming :  or  he 


78  S  W  I  M  M  1  N  O  . 

may  first  proceed  with  the  system  of  Bernardi,  which  im- 
mediately folh^ws. 

As  the  former  have  already  been  given  in  ample  detail, 
there  is  nothinf<  new  here  to  be  added  respecting  them, 
except  that,  while  the  attitude  is  correct,  the  limbs  must 
be  exercised  calmly,  and  free  from  all  hurry  and  trepida- 
tion, the  breath  being  held,  and  the  breast  kept  inflated 
while  a  few  strokes aie  made. 

Respiration  in  Swimming. 

If  the  breath  is  drawn  at  the  moment  when  the  swim- 
mer strikes  out  with  the  legs,  instead  of  when  the  body 
is  elevated  by  the  hands  descending  towards  the  hips,  the 
head  partially  sinks,  the  face  is  driven  against  the  water, 
and  the  mouth  becomes  fdlcd. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  thr;  breath  i;^  drawn  when  the  body 
is  elevated  by  the  hands  descending  towards  the  hips, 
when  the  progress  of  the  body  forward  consequently 
cea.scs,  when  the  face  is  no  longer  driven  against  the 
water,  but  is  elevated  above  the  surface, — then  not  only 
cannot  the  water  enter,  but  if  the  mouth  were  at  other 
limes  even  with,  or  partly  under  the  surface,  no  water 
could  enter  it,  as  the  air,  at  such  times,  driven  outward 
between  the  lips,  would  cn'ectually  prevent  it. 

The  breath  should  accordingly  be  expired  while  the 
body,  at  the  next  stroke,  is  sent  forward  by  the  action  of 
the  legs. 


DPRIGHT     SWIMMING,  79 

Coming  out  of  the  Water. 

The  swimmer  should  not  remain  in  the  water  too  long, 
but  come  out  as  soon  as  he  feels  himself  tired,  chilly,  or 
numbed. 

Subsequent  friction  drives  the  blood  over  every  part  of 
the  body,  creates  an  agreeable  glow,  and  strengthens  the 
joints  and  muscles. 

UPRIGHT   SWIMMING, 

Bernardi's  System. 

The  principal  reasons  given  by  Bernardi  for  recom- 
mending the  upright  position  in  swimming  are— its  con- 
formity to  the  accustomed  movement  of  the  limbs;  the 
freedem  it  gives  to  the  hands  and  arms,  by  which  any  im- 
pediment may  be  removed,  or  any  offered  aid  readily  laid 
hold  of;  vision  all  around ;  a  much  greater  facility  of 
breathing ;  and  lastly,  that  much  less  of  the  body  is  ex- 
posed to  the  risk  of  being  laid  Jj^old  of  by  persons  strug- 
gling in  the  water. 

The  less  we  alter  our  method  of  advancing  in  the  wa- 
ter from  M'hat  is  habitual  to  us  on  shore,  the  more  easy 
do  we  find  a  continued  exercise  of  it. 

The  most  important  consequence  of  this  is,  that  though 
a  person  swimming  in  an  upright  posture  advances  more 
slowly,  he  is  able  to  continue  his  course  much  longer; 
and  certainly  nothing  can  be  more  beneficial  to  a  swim- 
mer than  whatever  tends  to  husband  his  strength,  and  to 
enable  him  to  remain  long  in  the  water  with  safety. 

Bernardi's  primary  object  is  to  enable  the  pupil  to  float 


80  SWIMMING. 

in  an  upright  posture,  and  to  feel  confidence  in  the  buoy- 
ancy of  his  body. 

He  accordingly  supports  the  pupil  under  the  shoulders 
until  he  floats  tranquilly  with  the  head  and  part  of  the 
neck  above  the  surface,  the  arms  being  stretched  out  hor- 
izontally under  water.  From  time  to  time,  the  support- 
ing ai-m  is  removed,  but  again  restored,  so  as  never  to 
suffer  the  head  to  sink,  which  would  disturb  the  growing 
confidence,  and  give  rise  to  efforts  destructive  of  the  suc-^ 
cess  of  the  lesson. 

In  this  early  stage,  the  unsteadiness  of  the  body  is  the 
chief  difficulty  to  be  overcome. 

The  head  is  the  great  regulator  of  our  movements  in 
water.  Its  smallest  inclination  to  either  side  instantly 
operates  on  the  whole  body ;  and,  if  not  corrected,  throws 
it  into  a  horizontal  posture.  The  pupil  must  therefore 
restore  any  disturbance  of  equilibrium  by  a  cautious 
movement  of  the  head  alone  in  an  opposite  direction. 

This  first  lesson  being  familiarized  by  practice,  he  is 
taught  the  use  of  the  legs  and  arms  for  balancing  the 
body  in  the  water.         * 

One  leg  being  stretched  forward,  the  other  backward, 
and  the  arms  laterally,  he  soon  finds  himself  steadily  sus- 
tained, and  independent  of  further  aid  in  floating. 

When  these  first  steps  have  been  gained,  the  sweeping 
semicircular  motion  of  the  arms  is  shown. 

This  is  practised  slowly,  without  motion  forwards,  un- 
til attained  with  precision. 

After  this,  a  slight  inclination  of  the  body  from  the  up- 
right position  occasions  its  advancing. 


U  P  R  I  G  H  T   S  W  I  M  M  I  N  G  .  81 

The  motion  of  striking  with  the  legs  is  added  in  the 
same  measured  manner ;  so  that  the  pupil  is  not  perplexed 
by  the  acquisition  of  more  than  one  thing  at  a  time. 

In  this  method,  the  motions  of  both  arms  and  legsdiffer 
from  those  we  have  so  carefully  described,  only  in  so  far 
as  they  are  modified  by  a  more  upright  position.  It  is  op- 
tional, therefore,  with  the  reader  to  practise  either  method. 
The  general  principles  of  both  are  now  before  him. 

The  upright  position  a  little  inclined  backward  (which, 
like  every  other  change  of  posture,  must  be  done  delibe- 
rately, by  the  corresponding  movement  of  the  head),  rever- 
sing in  this  case  the  motion  of  the  arms,  and  striking  the 
flat  part  of  the  foot  down  and  a  little  forward,  gives  the 
motion  backward,  which  is  performed  with  greater  ease 
Than  when  the  body  is  laid  horizontally  on  the  back. 

According  to  this  system,  Bernardi  says,  a  swimmer 
ought  at  every  stroke  to  urge  himself  forward  a  distance 
equal  to  the  length  of  his  body.  A  good  swimmer  ought 
to  make  about  three  miles  an  hour.  A  good  day's  journey 
may  thus  be  acheived,  if  the  strength  be  used  with  due  dis- 
cretion, and  the  swimmer  be  familiar  with  the  various 
means  by  which  it  may  be  recruited. 

Of  Bernardi's  successful  practice,  he  sa3'-s;  'I  having 
been  appointed  to  instruct  the  youths  of  the  Royal  Naval 
Academy  of  Naples  in  the  art  of  swimming,  a  trial  of  the 
proficiency  of  the  pupils  took  place,  under  the  inspection 
of  a  number  of  people  assembled  on  the  shore  for  that  pur- 
pose, on  the  tenth  day  of  their  instruction.  A  twelve- 
oared  boat  attended  the  progress  of  the  pupils,  from  mo- 
tives of  precaution.  They  swam  so  far  out  in  the  bay,  that 
6 


82  SWIMMING. 

at  length  the  heads  of  the  young  men  could  with  difficul- 
ty be  discerned  Avith  the  naked  eye  ;  and  the  Major  Gen- 
eral of  Marine,  Forteguerri,  for  whose  inspection  the  ex- 
hibition was  intended,  expressed  serious  apprehensions 
for  their  safety.  Upon  their  return  to  the  shore,  the 
young  men,  however,  assured  him,  that  they  felt  so  little 
exhausted  as  to  be  willing  immediately  to  repeat  the  ex- 
ertion.' 

An  official  report  on  the  subject  has  also  been  drawn  up 
by  a  commission  (appointed  by  the  Neapolitan  govern- 
ment), after  devoting  a  month  to  the  investigation  of  Ber- 
nardi'splan  ;  and  it  states- as  follows: 

'  1st.  It  has  been  established  by  the  experience  of  more 
than  a  hundred  persons  of  different  bodily  constitutions, 
that  the  human  body  is  lighter  than  water,  and  conse- 
quently will  float  by  nature ;  but  that  the  art  of  swimming 
must  be  acquired  to  render  that  privilege  useful. 

•2dly.  That  Bernardi's  s)^stem  is  new,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
foimded  on  the  principle  of  husbanding  the  strength  and 
rendering  the  power  of  recruiting  it  easy.  The  speed, 
according  to  the  new  method,  is  no  doubt  diminished ; 
but  security  is  much  more  important  than  speed  ;  and  the 
new  plan  is  not  exclusive  of  the  old,  when  occasions  re- 
quire great  effort. 

'3dly.  That  the  new  method  is  sooner  learnt  than  the 
old,  to  the  extent  of  advancing  a  pupil  in  one  day  as  far 
as  a  month's  instruction  on  the  old  plan.' 


U  P  R  I  G  H  T   S  W  I  M  M  1  N  G  .  '83 


Treacling  Water. 

This  differs  little  from  the  system  just  described. 

As  in  it,  the  position  is  upright ;  but  progression  is  ob- 
tained by  the  action  of  the  legs  alone. 

There  is  little  power  in  this  method  of  swimming:  but 
it  may  be  very  useful  in  rescuing  drowning  persons,  &,c. 

The  arms  should  be  folded  across,  below  the  breast,  or 
compressed  against  the  hips. 

The  legs  must  be  employed  as  in  front  swimming,  ex- 
cept as  to  time  and  extent. 

They  should  perform  their  action  in  half  the  usual 
time,  or  two  strokes  should  be  taken  in  the  time  of  one  ; 
because,  acting  perpendicularly,  each  stroke  would  other- 
wise raise  the  swimmer  too  much,  and  he  would  sink  too 
low  between  the  strokes,  were  they  not  quickly  to  follow 
each  other. 

They  should  also  perform  their  action  in  about  two 
thirds  of  the  usual  space,  preserving  the  upper  or  stronger, 
and  omitting  the  lower  or  weaker,  part  of  the  stroke. 

There  is,  however,  another  mode  of  treading  water,  in 
which  the  thighs  are  separated,  and  the  legs  slightly  bent, 
or  together  curved,  as  in  a  half-sitting  posture.  Here  the 
legs  are  used  alternately,  so  that,  while  one  remains  more 
contracted,  the  other,  less  so,  describes  a  circle. 

By  this  method,  the  swimmer  does  not  seem  to  hop  in 
the  water,  but  remains  nearly  at  the  same  height. 

Plate  XV.  represents  both  these  methods,  and  shewr; 
their  peculiar  adaptation  to  relieve  drowning  persons,  &C' 


81  SWIMMING. 


BACK    SWIMMING. 

This  though  little  calculated  for  progression,  is  the 
easiest  of  all  methods,  because  much  of  the  head  being 
immersed,  little  effort  is  required  for  support. 

For  this  purpose,  the  swimmer  must  lie  down  gently 
upon  the  water;  the  body  must  be  extended;  the  head 
must  be  kept  in  a  line  with  it,  so  that  the  back  and  much 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  head  may  be  immersed ;  the  head 
and  breast  must  remain  perfectly  unagitated  by  the  action 
of  the  legs  ;  the  hand  must  be  laid  on  the  thigh  (Plate 
XVI.  Figure  1).  and  the  legs  must  be  employed  as  in 
front  swimming,  care  being  taken  that  the  knees  do  not 
rise  out  of  the  water  (Plate  XVI.  Figure  2.) 

Tiie  arms  may  however,  be  used  in  various  ways  in 
swimming  on  the  back. 

In  the  method  called  winging,  the  arms  must  be  exten- 
ded till  in  a  line  with  each  other;  they  must  next  be 
stuck  down  to  the  thighs,  with  the  palms  turned  in  that 
direction,  and  the  thumbs  inclined  downward  to  increase 
the  buoyancy  (Plate  XVI.  Figure  1) ;  the  palms  must 
then  be  moved  edgewise,  and  the  arms  elevated  as  before, 
(Plate  XVII.  Figure  2);  and  so  on,  repeating  the  same 
actions.  The  legs  must  throughout  make  one  stroke  as 
the  arms  are  struck  down,  and  another  as  they  are  ele-~ 
vated. 

The  other  mode,  called  finning,  differs  from  this  only 
in  the  stroke  of  the  arms  being  shorter,  and  made  in  the 
same  lime  as  that  of  the  legs. 

In  back  swimming,  the  body  should  be  extended  after 


S  1  D  E   S  W  I  M  M  I  N  G  .  85 

each  stroke,  and  long  pauses  should  be  made  between 
these. 

The  passing  from  front  to  back,  or  back  to  front  swim- 
Jiiing,  must  always  be  immediately  after  throwing  out 
the  feet. 

To  turn  from  the  breast  to  the  back,  the  legs  must  be 
raised  forward,  and  the  head  thrown  backward,  until  the 
body  is  in  a  right  position.  To  turn  from  the  back  to  the 
breast,  the  legs  must  be  dropped,  and  the  body  thrown  for- 
ward on  the  breast. 


Floating  is  properly  a  transition  from  swimming  on  the 
back. 

To  effect  it,  it  is  necessary,  while  the  legs  are  gently  ex- 
ercising, to  extend  the  arms  as  far  as  possible  beyond  the 
head,  equidistant  from,  and  parallel  with,  its  sides,  but 
never  rising  above  the  surface ;  to  immerse  the  head  rath- 
er deeply,  and  elevate  the  chin  more  than  the  forehead ; 
to  inflate  the  chest  while  taking  this  position,  and  so  to 
keep  it  as  much  as  possible ;  and  to  cease  the  action  of  the 
legs,  and  put  the  feet  together — (Plate  XVIII.  Figure  1.) 

The  swimmer  will  thus  be  able  to  float,  rising  a  little 
with  every  inspiration,  and  falling  wdth  every  expiration. 

Should  the  feet  descend,  the  loins  may  be  hollowed. 

SIDE    SWIMMING. 

For  this  purpose,  the  body  may  be  turned  either  upon 
the  right  or  left  side:  the  feet  must  perform  their  usual 
motions  :  the  arms  alone  require  peculiar  guidance. 


80  SWIMMING. 

In  lowering  the  left,  and  elevating  the  right  side,  the 
swimmer  must  strike  forward  with  the  left  hand,  and  side- 
wise  with  the  right ;  the  back  of  the  latter  being  in  front 
instead  of  upward,  and  the  thumb-side  of  the  hand  down- 
ward to  serve  as  an  oar. 

In  turning  on  the  right  side,  the  swimmer  must  strike 
ont  with  the  right  hand,  and  use  the  lelt  as  an  oar. 

In  both  cases,  the  lower  arm  stretches  itself  out  quickly, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  feel  are  striking ;  and  the  upper 
arm  strikes  at  the  same  time  that  the  feet  are  impelling, 
the  hand  of  the  latter  arm  beginning  its  stroke  on  a  level 
wiih  the  head.  While  this  hand  is  again  brought  forward 
and  the  feet  are  contracted,  the  lower  hand  is  drawn  back 
towards  the  breast,  rather  to  sustain  than  to  impel. — (Plate 
XVIII.  Figure  2.) 

As  side  swimming  presents  t,o  the  water  a  smaller  sur- 
face than  front  swimming,  it  is  preferable  when  rapidity 
is  necessary. 


In  the  leap  to  plunge,  the  legs  must  be  kept  together, 
and  the  arms  close. 

The  plunge  may  be  made  either  with  the  feet  or  the 
liead  foremost. 

With  the  feet  foremost,  they  must  be  kept  together, 
and  the  body  inclined  backwards. 

With  the  head  foremost,  the  methods  vary. 

In  the  deep  plunge,  which  is  used  where  we  know  there 
1.=!  depth  of  water,  the  swimmer  has  his  arms  out- 
stretched, his  knees  bent,  and  his  body  leant  forwards 


DIVING.  87 

(Plate  XIX.  Figure  1),  till  the  head  descends  nearly  to 
the  feet,  when  the  spine  and  knees  are  extended. 

Thisplunge  may  be  made  without  the  slightest  noise. 

When  the  swimmer  rises  to  the  surface,  he  mubt  not 
open  his  mouth  before  previously  repelling  the  water. 

In  the  flat  plunge,  which  is  used  in  shallow  water,  or 
where  we  do  know  the  depth,  and  which  can  be  made 
only  from  a  small  height,  the  swimmer  must  fling  himself 
forwards,  in  order  to  extend  the  line  of  the  plunge  as 
much  as  possible  under  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  as 
soon  as  he  touches  it,  he  must  keep  his  head  up,  his  back 
hollow,  and  his  hands  stretched  forv.-ard,  flat  and  inclined 
upward. 

He  will  thus  dart  forwards  a  considerable  way  close 
under  the  surface,  so  that  his  head  will  reach  it  before  the 
impulse  ceases  to  operate.— (Plate  XIX.  Figure  2.) 


The  swimmer  may  prepare  for  diving  by  taking  a  slow 
and  full  inspiration,  letting  himself  sink  gently  into  the 
water,  and  expelling  the  breath  by  degrees,  when  the 
heart  begins  to  beat  strongly. 

In  order  to  descend  in  diving,  the  head  must  be  bent  for- 
ward upon  the  breast ;  the  back  must  be  made  round;  and 
the  legs  must  be  thrown  out  with  greater  vigor  than  usual; 
but  the  arms  and  hands,  instead  of  being  struck  forward 
as  in  swimming,  must  move  rather  backward,  or  come  out 
lower,  and  pass  more  behind. — (Plate  XX,  Figure  1.) 

The  eyes  should,  meanwhile,  be  kept  open,  as,  if  the 

/ 


88 


S  W  I  M  M  I  N  G  , 


water  be  cJear,  it  enables  us  to  ascertain  its  depth,  and  see 
whatever  lies  at  the  boiom ;  and  when  the  diver  has  ob- 
tained a  perpendicular  position,  he  should  extend  his  hand 
like  feelers. 

To  more  forward  the  head  must  be  raised,  and  the  back 
straightened  a  little. 

Still  in  swimming  between  top  and  bottom,  the  head 
must  be  kept  a  little  downward^  and  the  feet  must  be  thrown 
out  a  little  higher  than  when  swimming  on  the  surface 
(Plate  XX.  Figure  2,) ;  and,  if  the  swimmer  thinks  that  he 
approaches  loo  near  the  surface,  he  must  press  the  palms 
upwards. 

To  ascend  the  chin  must  be  held  up,  the  back  made  con- 
cave the  hands  struck  out  high,  and  brought  briskly  down. 
(Plate  XX.  Figure  3.) 

THRUSTING. 

This  is  a  transition  from  front  swimming,  in  which  the 
attitude  and  motions  of  the  feet  are  still  the  same  but 
those  of  the  hands  very  different. 

One  arm,  the  right  for  instance,  is  here  lifted  entirely 
out  of  the  water,  thrust  forward  as  much  as  possible,  and, 
when  at  the  utmost  stretch,  let  fall,  with  the  hand  hollow- 
ed, into  the  water,  which  it  grasps  or  pulls  toward  the 
swimmer  in  its  return  transversely  toward  the  opposite 
arm-pit. 

While  the  right  arm  is  thus  stretched  forth,  the  left,  with 
the  hand  expanded,  describes  a  small  circle  to  sustain  the 
body  (Plate  XXI.  Figure  1} ;  and,  while  the  right  arm  pulls 


SPRINGING  —  ON  E-A  RM     SWIMMING.  89 

toward  the  swimmer,  the  left,  in  a  widely  described  circle 
is  carried  rapidly  under  the  breast,  towards  the  hip. 
(Plate  XXI.  Figure  2.) 

When  the  left  arm  has  completed  these  movements,  it, 
in  its  turn,  is  lifted  from  the  water,  stretched  forward,  pul- 
led back,  &c.;  and  the  right  arm  describes  first  the  smaller, 
then  the  larger  circle,  &c. 

The  feet  make  their  movements  during  the  describing 
of  the  larger  circle. 

The  thrust  requires  much  practice ;  but,  when  well  ac- 
quired, it  not  only  relieves  the  swimmer,  but  makes  great 
advance  in  the  water,  and  is  applicable  to  cases  where 
rapidity  is  required  for  a  short  distance. 

SPRINGING. 

Some  swimmers,at  every  stroke,  raise  not  only  their  neck 
and  shoulders,  but  breast  andbody,  out  of  the  water.  This, 
when  habitual,  exhausts  without  any  useful  purpose. 

As  an  occasional  effort,  however,  this  may  be  useful  in 
seizing  any  object  above  ;  and  it  may  then  best  be  perform- 
ed by  the  swimmer  drawing  his  feet  as  close  as  possible 
under  his  body  stretching  his  hands  forward,  and,  with  both 
feet  and  hands,  striking  the  water  strongly,  so  as  to  throw 
himself  out  of  the  water  as  high  as  the  hips 

ONE-ARM  SWIMMING. 

Here  the  swimmer  must  be  more  erect  than  usual,  hold 
his  head  more  backward,  and  use  the  legs  and  arm  more 
quickly  and  powerfully.  The  arm ,  at  its  full  extent, must 
be  struck  out  rather  across  the  body,  andbroughtdown  be- 
fore.    The  breast  must  be  kept  inflated. 


90  SWIMMING. 

This  mode  of  swimming  is  best  adapted  for  assisting 
persons  who  are  drowning,  and  should  be  frequentl}^  prac- 
tised, carrying  first  under,  then  over  the  water,  a  weight 
of  a  few  pounds. 

In  assisting  drowning  persons,  however,  great  care 
should  be- taken  to  avoid  being  caught  hold  of  by  them. 

They  should  be  approached  from  behind,  and  driven  be- 
fore or  drawn  after  the  swimmer  to  the  shore,  by  the  inter- 
vention if  possible  of  any  body  that  may  be  at  hand,  and, 
if  nothing  be  at  hand,  by  means  of  the  drowning  person's 
hair,  wiio  should  if  possible  be  got  on  his  back. 

Should  the  drowning  person  attempt  to  seize  the  swim- 
mer, he  must  let  him  loose  immediately ;  and  if  the  drown- 
ing person  has  seized  him,  he  must  drop  to  the  bottom 
when  the  drow^ning  man  will  endeavour  to  rise  lo  the  sur- 
face. 

Two  swimmers  treading  water  may  more  easily  assist 
a  drowning  person,  by  seizing  him,  one  under  each  arm, 
and  earring  him  along  with  his  head  above  water,  and  his 
body  and  limbs  stretched  out  and  motionless. 


91 


ROWING. 


RIVER-ROWING*  WITH  TWO  SCULLS. 


THE  BOAT,  ETC. 

Il  maybe  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that,  in  calm  wea- 
ther, a  light  and  sharp  boat  is  preferable ;  and,  in  rough 
weather,  a  heavier  and  broader  one. 

The  learner,  however,  should  not  at  tirst  begin  in  too 
light  a  boat,  nor  should  he  practise  in  rough  weather,  until 
he  gets  acquainted  with  its  management. 

TO  LEAVE  THE  LANDING  PLACE, 

To  leave  the  shore,  the  rower  should,  with  the  boat- 
hook,  shove  the  boat  off,  head  upon  tide,  or  opposite  to  the 
current. 

To  leave  stairs,  the  rower  must  either  shove  the  boat 
off  with  the  boat-hook,or  place  the  blade  of  the  scull  for- 
ward, and  perform  what  the  London  waterman  call  be- 
laying the  boat's  head  out  from  the  shore,  accordingly  as 
there  is  deep  or  shallow  water. 

This  being  done,  the  rower  sits  doion  to  his  sculls. 
These  he  puts  in  the  rullocks,  and  turns  the  concave  fron' 
or  filling  of  the  scull  toward  the  stern  of  the  boat. 

•  This  should  have  the  preference  here,  because  the  art  is  best  learned 
on  the  smooth  water,  and  in  the  lighter  boats,  of  rivers. 


92 


ROWING. 


THE  SEAT. 


The  rower  must  sit  a-midships  on  the  thwart  or  seat  of 
the  boat,  else  it  will  heel  to  the  side  on  which  he  is  sitting, 
and  much  of  his  labour  will  be  lost. 

He  should  sit  ivith  ease  to  himself,  having  his  feet  on 
•  the  middle  of  the  stretcher,  and  his  legs  not  quite  extended  : 
but  his  knees,  as  he  rows,  should  be  brought  down,  and 
his  legs  stretched. 

THE  PULL. 

The  rower  should  make  long  strokes  in  a  heavy  boat, 
and,  shorter  and  quicker  strokes  hi  a  light  boat. 

At  the  BEGINNING  OF  THE  pvLL,  he  must,  in  general,  bend 
his  body  till  his  head  is  over  his  knees,  and  extend  his 
arms  as  far  aft  as  convenient,  that  the  blades  of  the  sculls 
may  be  thrown  correspondingly  forward. — (Plate  XXII). 

With  regard  to  the  back  in  particular,  some  think  that, 
if  a  short  distance  is  to  be  rowed,  it  should  be  bent ;  and 
that,  if  a  long  distance,  it  is  less  fatiguing  to  keep  it 
straight. 

When  the  arms  are  extended  as  far  aft,  and  the  blades 
of  the  sculls  as  far  forward  as  convenient,  which  must 
never  be  so  far  as  to  jam  in  the  rullocks,  (Plate  XXII.) 
the  rower  must  dip  the  sculls  into  the  water,  and  pull  to- 
ward him,  by  at  once  bending  the  arms  and  the  body. 

When  in  the  middle  op  the  pull,  if  the  sculls  are  not 
short  enough,  or  even  if  the  head  and  body  are  slightly 
turned,  one  of  the  hands  will  go  higher  than  the  other  ; 
and,  as  the  right  is  generally  the  stronger,  \{  may  go 
above,  and  the  left  below. 


T  H  E     P  U  L  L  .  93 

This  rule,  however,  must  be  modified  by  the  circum- 
stances of  river-rowing.  A  waterman  writes  us  as  fol- 
lows :  *  As  to  carrying  one  hand  above  the  other,  my  way 
is,  that  if,  for  instance,  I  go  from  Greenwich  to  Black- 
wall  against  tide,  I  keep  down  on  the  Greenwich  side,  in 
general  looking  toward  the  shore,  and  haviDg  my  face 
over  the  left  shoulder,  my  right  hand  is  then  above.  If  I 
go  from  Greenwich  to  London,  my  face  is  turned  over 
the  right  shoulder,  and  the  left  hand  is  then  uppermost.' 

(The  usual  position  in  the  middle  of  the  pull,  is  shown 
in  Plate  XXIII.) 

The  END  OF  THE  PULL  must  not  take  place  till  the  el- 
lows  have  approached  the  tops  of  the  hips,  the  hands  are 
brought  toward  the  chest,  and  the  body  is  thrown  well 
back. 

There  ivould  be  a  loss  of  power,  however,  if  the  hands 
were  brought  too  near  the  chest ;  and  the  body  should  not 
be  thrown  further  back,  than  that  it  may  easily  and  quick- 
ly recover  its  first  position  for  the  next  stroke.— (Plate 
XXIV.) 

As  the  water  is  being  delivered  from  the  sculls,  the 
elbows  sink,  the  wrists  are  bent  up,  and  the  backs  of  the 
hands  are  turned  towards  the  fore-arms,  in  order  to 
feather  the  sc^ZZs.— (Plate  XXIV.) 

In  the  RETURN  OF  THE  SCULLS,  the  hands  must  remain 
turned  up  until  the  sculls  are  put  into  the  water.— (Plate 
XXV.) 

In  the  middle  of  the  return,  if  the  sculls  are  not  short, 
or  if  the  head  and  body  be  turned,  one  of  the  hands  also 
goes  higher  than  the  other. 

As   to   the   DEGREE  OP   THE   IMMERSION   of  the  SCUlls.     Ir 


94  ROWING. 

die  middle  of  the  pull,  the  blades  must  be  covered  by 
the  water.  The  learner  ia  general  dips  the  sculls  very 
deep ;  but  that  ought  to  be  avoided,  especially  in  calm 
weather.  In  the  whole  of  the  return,  the  tips  of  the 
sculls  should,  in  calm  weather,  be  two  or  three  inches 
above  the  water;  and,  in  rough  weather,  they  should  be 
higher,  in  order  to  clear  it.    (See  the  preceding  Plates.) 

The  head  ought  throughout  to  be  very  moveable — first  to 
one  side,  then  to  the  other,  but  mostly  toward  the  shore 
when  against  the  tide. 

The  same  movements  have  only  to  be  repeated  through- 
out the  course. 

THE   TIDE   OR   CURRENT. 

In  river-rowing,  when  the  tide  or  current  is  with  the 
roioer,  a  learner  should  in  general  take  the  middle  of  the 
stream.  In  rowing  with  the  tide,  however,  watermen 
generally  cut  off  the  points  in  order  to  keep  a  straight 
course. 

When  the  tide  or  current  is  against  the  rower,  he  should 
take  the  sides,  preferring  that  side  on  which,  owing  to 
the  course  of  the  river,  the  current  is  least.  As  there  is 
an  eddy  under  the  points,  watermen  generally,  when 
rounding  them,  shoot  the  water  to  the  next  point,  and  so 
on. 

TO   TURN. 

Back  water  with  one  scull,  by  putting  the^  one  on  the 
side  you  wish  to  turn  to  into  the  water,  with  its  concave 
front  or  filling  towards  you,  and  pushing  against  it ;  and 
at  the  same  time,  pull  strongly  with  the  other  scull ;  until 
the  boat's  head  is  turned  round. 


SEA-ROWING.  95 

MEETING  OR  PASSING. 

In  meeti7ig  a  boat,  the  one  which  comes  with  the  tide 
must  get  out  of  the  way.  In  this  case,  both  boats,  if 
close,  lay  the  blades  of  their  sculls  flat  on  the  water,  lift 
I  hem  out  of  the  ruUocks,  and  let  them  drift  alongside. 
Each  replaces  them  when  the  other  has  passed. 

In  passing  a  boat,  the  rower  who  passes  must  take  the 
outside,  unless  there  is  ample  room  within,  and  must  also 
keep  clear  of  the  other's  sculls  or  oars. 

If  one  boat  is  crossing  the  water,  and  another  is  coming 
iciththetide,  the  one  coming  with  the  tide  must  keep  as- 
tern of  ihe  other,  and  keep  a  good  look-out  ahead. 

TO  LAND. 

Give  the  boat  its  proper  direction,  aSid  keep  its  headt?i- 
cliningtoicards  the  tide,  and  its  stern  will  turnup  or  down 
as  the  tide  runs;  unship  the  sculls  by  the  manoeuvre  di- 
rected above  ;  but  instead  of  letting  them  drift  alongside 
lay  them  in  the  boat,  the  blades  forward  and  the  looms 
aft;  seize  the  head-fast ;  jump  ashore  ;  and  take  two  half- 
hitches  round  the  post  or  ring. 

SEA-ROWING,  OR    ROWING    IN    A    GALLEY 
IN    THE    RIVER. 

In  launching  a  boat  from  the  sea-beach,  when  it  is 
rough,  and  there  is  a  heavy  surf,  the  two  bowmen  must 
get  into  the  boat  wath  their  oars  run  out ;  and  the  other 
rowers  must  follow  the  boat  quickly  in  her  descent;  but 
they  must  not  jump  in  till  she  is  quite  afloat,  lest  tkeir 
weight  might  fix  her  on  the  beach,  and  she  ship  a  sea. 


9G  ROWING. 

It  may  happen,  that  immediately  on  the  boat  floating,  a 
sea  shall  take  the  bow  (before  the  rowers  are  sufficiently 
prepared  with  the  oars  to  keep  her  head  out),  and  place 
her  broadside  to  the  waves.  In  this  situation,  the  boat  is 
in  danger  of  being  swamped,  and  the  lives  of  those  on 
board  are  in  peril. 

"When  thus  situated,  it  is  best  for  two  of  the  rowers  to 
go  near  the  bow  of  the  boat,  and  immediately  force  each 
his  boat-hook  or  oar  on  the  ground,  on  the  shore  side  of 
the  boat,  as  the  most  efiectual,  safe  and  expeditious  me- 
thod of  bringing  her  head  again  to  the  sea. 

Should  there  be  more  than  a  usual  swell,  both  the  row- 
ers and  the  sitter,  or  steersman,  cannot  be  too  particular 
in  keeping  throughout,  the  head  of  the  boat  to  the  swell,  as 
lying  broadside  to  a  heavy  sea  is  extremely  dangerous. 

In  rowing,  each  man  has  in  general  a  single  oar,  and 
sits  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  galley  from  the  rullock 
through  which  his  oar  passes. 

The  oar  must  consequently  cross  the  boat,  and  be  held 
on  its  opposite  side,  so  as  to  clear  the  back  of  the  man  be- 
fore. 

The  oar  should  be  neither  held  nor  fulled  oblic/uely  to 
the  side  by  twisting  the  body,  as  is  practised  by  many, 
because  the  muscles  in  that  case  act  disadvantageously, 
and  are  sooner  fatigued. 

The  stroke  must  be  longer  in  sea  than  in  river  rowing. 

The  oar  must  be  throum  out  with  a  heave,  caused  by  the 
simultaneous  extension  of  the  body  and  the  arms. 

It  is  still  more  essential  to  feather  the  oar  in  sea  than  in 
river  rowins:. 


S  E  A-R  OWING.  97 

Tlie  oar  must  be  drawn  back  loitk  great  poioer,  caused 
by  the  simultaneous  contraction  of  the  body  and  arms. 

Time  with  the  other  roivers  must  be  accurately  kept,  and 
distinctly  marked. 

When  the  oars  are  delivered  from  the  water,  the  time, 
until  they  go  into  it  again  may  be  counted  one,  two,  three, 
when  the  oars  pass  through  the  water.  This  time  is 
kept  by  the  strokesman,  or  sternmost  man  of  the  rowers. 

In  landing,  the  word  is  *  in  bow,'  when  the  bowman  or 
foremost  man,  gets  the  boat-hook  ready  to  clear  away  for 
the  shore,  or  the  stairs. 

The  next  word  is  from  the  coxswain,  '  rowed  off  all,' 
or  '  well  rowed  ;'  when  all  the  oars  are  laid  in,  with  the 
blades  forward,  and  the  boat  is  made  fast. 

In  landing  on  the  sea-beach,  when  there  is  a  surf,  the 
rowers  may  watch  for  a  smooth,  and  then  give  a  good 
way  ashore,  when  the  bowman  should  instantly  jump  out 
with  the  headfast  or  penter,  and  pull  her  up,  to  avoid 
shipping  a  sea. 

The  distances  run  in  this  way  are  very  great.  We  have 
known  four  men,  in  a  short  galley,  row  thirty  miles  in 
four  hours,  namely,  from  Dover  to  eight  miles  below  Ca- 
lais, or  abreast  of  Graveliness,  on  the  opposite  coast. 

In  such  a  row,  a  London  waterman  would  have  no 
skin  left  on  his  hands ;  and  a  member  of  the  Funny  Club 
would,  we  suppose,  have  no  hands  left  on  his  arms! 
7 


98 


SAILING, 


BOATS,  ETC. 

Cutters,  owing  to  their  excellent  sailing  qualities,  are 
much  employed  as  packets,  revenue  cruisers,  smugglers, 
privateers,  and  in  all  cases  requiring  despatch. 

The  boats  commonly  employed  in  parties  of  pleasure, 
&c.  are  also  cutters. 

On  the  size  of  these  vessels,  however,  it  is  necessary 
to  remark,  that  a  cutter  under  one  hundred  tons  is  suffi- 
ciently handy ;  but'when  the  size  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
larger  yachts,  a  strong  crew  is  necessary,  as  the  spars  are 
very  heavy,  and  a  number  of  men  requisite  to  set  or  short- 
en sail. 

,  As  a  single  masted  vessel,  in  the  event  of  springing  a 
spar,  becomes  helpless,  even  large  cutters  are  used  only  in 
bhort  voyages,  or  on  the  coast;  for,  incase  of  accident, 
they  can  always  manage  to  reach  some  harbor  or  anchor- 
age to  repair  any  damage  they  may  sustain. 

The  peculiar  qualities  of  beating  well  to  windward, 
and  working  on  short  tacks,  adapt  cutters  peculiarly  for 
channel  cruising. 

Although,  some  years  back,  large  cutters  were  confin- 
ed principally  to  the  navy  and  revenue,  the  Royal  Yacht 
Club,  in  theirs,  have  exceeded  these  not  only  in  size,  but 
in  beauty  and  sailing  qualities.  Some  of  the  finest  and 
fastest  cutters  in  the  world  are  the  property  of  this  na- 


BOAT.    ETC.  99 

tional  club;  two  of  them,  the  Alarm  (Mr.  Weld's 
and  the  Arundel  (the  Duke  of  Norfolk's), measure  193 
and  188  tons. 

The  inconvenient  size,  however,  of  a  cutter's  boom  and 
mainsail  has  caused  the  very  general  introduction  of  a 
ketch  rig,  which,  by  the  addition  of  a  mizen,  permits  the 
boom  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  reduces  the  mainsail  con- 
siderable. This  rig,  indeed,  when  the  mizen  stands  well, 
is  elegant ;  and,  if  a  vessel  is  short-handed,  it  is  very  handy. 
As  cutter-rigged  vessels,  instead  of  a  regular  mainsail, 
with  its  boom  and  gaff,  have  sometimes  a  mere  spritsail 
it  is  necessary  we  should  observe,  that  the  inferior  conve- 
nience and  inferior  safety  of  these  preclude  our  noticing 
them  here. 

It  is  also  necessary  that  we  should  explain  why,  in  the 
sequel,  we  do  not  even  refer  to  lugger-rigged  vessels. 

Luggers  are  more  difficult  to  work  or  manoeuvre ;  they 
require  a  greater  number  of  men  ;  their  spars  are  so  heavy 
that  they  require  all  hands  to  move  them  ;  their  decks  are 
inevitably  lumbered  with  spars,  &c.  ;  their  canvass  gets 
rotted  from  exposure  ;  and  their  expense  is  much  greater 
then  that  of  cutters. 

Luggers  generally  have  two  sets  of  lugs — large  ones 
which  require  dipping  every  time  they  tack,  and  small 
working  lugs,  which  do  not  require  dipping,  the  tack  com- 
ing to  the  foot  of  the  mast.  The  latter  are  generally  used 
except  in  making  long  reaches,  across  the  Channel,  &c. 

A  lugger,  moreover,  is  seldom  fit  to  be  altered  to  any 
thing  but  a  schooner,  not  having  breadth  enough  for  one 
mast,  which,  after  all,  is  the  best  for  beauty  and  speed. 
Sailingmen,  indeed,  are  now  so  perfectly  aware  of  the 


100  SAILING. 

inlierior  speed  of  luggers,  that  we  never  see  a  lugger  or 
schooner  enter  against  a  cutter  at  all  near  its  tonnage.  At 
sea,  luggers  would  have  a  better  chance;  though  even 
there  many  would  prefer  cutters,  except  in  foul  weather 
and  a  long  reach. 

In  short,  these  vessels  suit  only  a  few  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  have  enough  of  patriotic  ambition  to  desire 
to  look  like  smugglers,  enough  of  delicacy  to  disregard  the 
being  thought  dirty  lubbers  by  their  own  men — some  of 
whom  are  not  dirty  from  mere  taste  or  choice,  and  enough 
of  penetration  not  to  discover  that  on  their  landing  with 
lilihy  clothes  and  tarry  hands,  every  old  sailor  grins  or 
laughs  at  their  imagining,  that  it  was  they,  and  not  the 
man  at  the  helm,  who  had  kept  the  canvass  from  cracking 
or  the  sticks  from  going  over  the  side. 

Our  descriptions  apply,  therefore,  to  cutters  alone  ,-  and 
the  Plates  at  the  end  of  this  article  illustrate  the  various 
parts  therein  referred  to. 

Upon  the  Thames,  the  sailing  clubs  comprise  the  Royal 
Sailing  Society,  the  Royal  Thames)  Yacht  Club,  the  Cla- 
rence, British,  Royal  Yacht,  and  several  minor  associa- 
tions. 

Several  cups  and  prizes  are  annually  given  during  the 
season ;  and  the  spirited  contests  between  the  beautiful 
small  craft  which  from  these  fancy  fleets,  are  highly  inter* 
esting. 

The  sailing  matches  on  the  river  are  of  two  sorts — one 
above,  and  the  other  below  the  bridges.  The  smaller 
yachts,  of  from  six  to  twenty-six  tons,  are  commonly 
entered  for  the  former,  and  a  larger  class  for  the  latter> 
which  take  place  between  Greenwich  and  Gravesend. 


BOATS,     ETC.  101 

These  national  amusements  appear  to  be  rapidly  gain, 
ing  the  first  place  among  the  fashionable  recreations,  and 
now  occupy  the  season,  from  the  period  when  hunting 
ends,  till  shooting  begins. 

The  Royal  Yacht  Club  has  nearly  six  hundred  persons 
on  its  lists,  of  which  above  one  hundred  are  members  and 
and  about  four  hundred  and  fifty,  honorary  members.  The 
number  of  yachts  is  one  hundred  and  nine;  of  which 
eighty-seven  are  cutters,  ten  schooners,  three  brigs,  four 
yawls,  two  ships,  two  ketches,  and  one  lugger.  The  greater 
part  of  these  vessels  belong  to  Cowes  and  to  Southamp- 
ton ;  the  rest  to  other  ports.  The  shipping  belonging  to 
the  club  amounts  to  7250  tons.  Now  a  vessel  of  one  hun- 
dred tons  seldom  perhaps  stands  the  owner  in  less  than 
from  five  to  six  thousand  pounds,  varying  from  that  to  ten, 
according  to  the  profusion  of  ornamental  parts,  the  inter- 
nal fittings,  and  other  contingences.  At  this  rate,  the  ship- 
ping of  the  club  would  have  cost  more  than  three  millions; 
and  a  half  of  money :  but  it  is  impossible  to  speak  decisive- 
ly on  this  point,  as  the  first  cost  of  the  yachts  varies  much, 
and  the  numerous  styles  of  rig  are  attended  with  expenses- 
so  widely  different. 

At  a  moderate  computation,  each  vessel  belonging  to 
the  club  carries  ten  men  on  an  average :  this  gives  the  total 
number  employed  1060,  During  the  summer  months-, 
then,  while  regattas  are  celebrated,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Royal  Yacht  Club  alone  employs  more  than  1100  men. 
These,  with  some  few  exceptions,  are  discharged  on  the 
approach  of  winter,  and  the  yachts  are  laid  up  for  the 
season,  retaining  the  master  and  one  man  in  pay.    The 


102  SAILING. 

crews  thus  discharged  obtain  employment  in  merchant- 
vessels,  or  otherwise,  during  the  winter;  and  in  the  middle 
of  spring,  are  generally  re-shipped  in  the  yachts  in  which 
they  have  previously  served.  On  these  conditions,  active 
and  industrious  men  of  good  character  are  generally  sure 
of  employment  in  the  club ;  and  many  members  justly 
pride  themselves  on  the  high  discipline,  manly  bearing, 
and  crack  appearance  of  their  crews.  The  situation  of 
master,  in  particular,  is  one  of  much  responsibility  and  is 
on  all  accounts  respectably  filled.  In  some  of  the  largest 
craft,  junior  officers  of  the  navy  are  found  to  accept  this 
office. 

The  sailing  regulations  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Club  are  as 
follows : 

First — Members  entering  their  yachts  must  send  the 
names  of  them  to  the  secretary  one  week  previous  to  the 
day  of  sailing,  and  pay  two  guineas  entrance  at  the  same 
time. 

Second — All  vessels  starting  or  entering  must  be  the 
bona  fide  property  of  members,  as  well  as  spars,  sails^ 
boats,  &c. 

Third — Each  member  is  allowed  to  enter  one  vessel  on- 
ly for  all  prizes  given  by  the  club. 

Fourth — Cutters  may  carry  four  sails  only,  viz.  mainsail, 
foresail,  jib,  and  gaft'-top-sail;  yawls,  luggers,  schooners, 
and  all  other  vessels,  in  like  proportion.  No  booming-out 
allowed. 

Fifth— No  trimming  with  ballast,  or  shifting  of  ballast 
allowed ;  and  all  vessels  to  keep  their  platforms  down,  and 
bulkheads  standing. 


I 


BOATS     ETC,  103 

Sixth,  Vessels  on  the  larboard  tack  must  invariably 
give  way  for  those  on  the  starboard  tack ;  and  in  all  cases, 
Avhere  a  doubt  of  the  possibility  of  the  vessel  on  the  larboard 
tack  weathering  the  one  on  the  starboard  tack  shall  exist* 
the  vessel  on  the  larboard  tack  shall  give  way;  or,  if  the 
other  vessel  keep  her  course,  and  run  into  her,  the  OAvner 
of  the  vessel  on  the  larboard  tack  shall  be  compelled  to 
pay  all  damages,  and  forfeit  his  claim  to  the  prize. 

Seventh — Vessels  running  on  shore  shall  be  allovired  to 
use  their  own  anchors  and  boats  actually  on  board  to  get 
them  off,  afterwards  weighing  anchor  and  hoisting  the  boat 
in  ;  but,  upon  receiving  assistance  from  any  other  vessel 
or  vessels,  boats,  or  anchors,  shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  the 
prize. 

Eight — That  nothing  but  the  hand-line  be  used  for 
sounding. 

Ninth — Any  deviation  from  these  rules  shall  subject  the 
aggressor  to  forfeit  all  claim  to  the  prize. 

Tenth— If  any  objection  be  made  with  regard  to  the  sail- 
ing of  any  other  vessel  in  the  race,  such  objection  must  be 
made  to  the  stewards  within  one  hour  after  the  vessel  ma- 
king the  objection  arrive  at  the  starting-post. 

Eleventh — No  vessel  shall  be  allowed  to  take  in  ballast, 
or  take  out,  for  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  starting; 
and  no  ballast  shall  be  thrown  overboard. 

Twelfth — Vessels  shall  start  from  moorings  laid  down 
at  a  cable-length  distance,  with  their  sails  set;  and  every 
vessel  not  exceeding  one  hundred  tons  shall  carry  a  boat 
not  less  than  ten  feet  long ;  and  vessels  exceeding  one 
hundred  tons,  a  boat  not  less  than  fourteen  feet  long. 


104  SAILING. 

Thirteenth — There  shall  be  a  member,  or  honorary- 
member,  on  board  each  vessel. 

Fourteenth — The  time  of  starting  maybe  altered  by  the 
stewards ;  and  ail  disputes  that  may  arise  are  to  be  deci- 
ded by  them,  or  such  persons  as  they  shall  appoint. 


The  Northern  Yacht  Club  is  a  highly  interesting  society 
although  its  plan  is  riot  so  extensive  as  that  of  the  Royal 
Club.  It  contains  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  members. 
The  documents  for  1830  comprise  ninety-two  in  the  Scot- 
tish, and  ninety  in  the  Irish  division,  with  fifty-two  hon- 
orary members,  in  addition  to  ninety  three  members  of 
the  Cork  Yacht  Club,  who  are  also  entered  on  the  honor- 
ary lists.  It  had,  in  1830,  sixty  yachts,  not  equal  in  pro- 
portion to  the  tonnage  of  the  Cowes  Club,  as  smaller  ves- 
sels are  admitted.  Many  R.  Y.  C.  men  are  found  in  the 
Northern  Club.  There  are  many  fine  vessels  in  this  club. 
Cutters,  as  usual,  excel  in  number. 

At  the  lowest  computation,  the  number  of  vessels  at 
present  employed  for  pleasure  in  this  country  cannot  be 
less  than  from  three  to  four  hundred,  ranging  in  bulk  from 
ten  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  These  are  variously 
distributed  along  our  shores,  carrying  their  opulence  into 
every  port  and  harbor.  But  there  is  another  advantage 
arising  from  yacht  clubs — namely,  that  national  spirit 
•which,  to  a  maritime  people,  is  above  all  in  worth.  The 
yacht  clubs  keep  alive  this  feeling  in  an  eminent  degree. 


GETTING     UNDER      WEIGH,  105 


COURSES,  ETC. 

Even  in  describing  the  very  elementary  nautical  opera- 
tions which  such  boats  require,  it  is  necessary  to  lay  down 
a  position  for  the  harbor,  direction  for  the  wind,  and  trip 
for  the  VESSEL. 

Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  lays 
to  wards  the  south ;  that  the  icind  blows  from  the  north,  with 
a  little  inclination  to  east,  and  that  we  wish^/-si  to  sail  due 
south  to  ffet  out  of  the  harbor^  next  direct  our  course  eastioardi 
then  return  westward  till  ioe  get  abreast  the  mouth  of  the 
harbor,  and  lastly,  northward,  to  enter  the  harbor  and  come 
to  our  moorings. 

These  courses  will,  with  variations  in  the  force  of  the 
wind,  illustrate  every  common  and  useful  manoeuvre, 

GETTING  UNDER   WEIGH. 

Ship  *  the  tiller.t 

Set  the  mainsail ;  t   hoist  the  throat  §  nearly  close  up  ; 
and  half  hoist  thepeak.ll 
Bend  IT  and  haul  the  jib  out  to  the  bowsprit  end. 


•  Fix  in  its  proper  place. 

+  Tlie  piece  of  wood  or  beam  put  into  the  head  of  the  rudder  to  move 
it. 

I  Unfurl  it  by  casting  the  stops  or  gaskets  off,  and  lash  it  to  the  hanks 
on  tlie  forestaj'. 

§  The  foremost  end  of  the  gaff,  or  thatend  next  the  mast. 

B  The  outermost  end  of  the  gaff,  or  that  farthest  from  the  mast, 

TT  Hook  it  to  the  traveller,  or  ring  on  the  bowsprit. 


106  SAILING. 

Bowse  the  bobstay,*  and  bowsprit  shrouds  t  well  taut. 

Hoist  the  jib,  and  bowse  it  well  up. 

Get  the  topmast  stay,i  backstays,  §  and  riggingll  well 
taut. 

Hoist  the  foresail  ready  to  cast  IT  her  when  the  moorings 
are  let  go. 

Send  a  hand  to  the  helm.** 

Overhaul  the  mainsheet,tt  and  the  lee  it  runner  and 

•  A  rope  or  chain  from  the  end  of  the  bowsprit  to  half  way  down  the 
stem. 

t  Riipes  from  the  bowsprit  end  on  each  side  to  the  bows. 

I  A  rope  friun  tiie  topma.it  head  to  the  outsr  end  of  the  bowsprit 
where  it  passes  through  a  sheave  or  small  block,  comes  in  by  the  stem 
head,  iuid  is  belayed  or  made  fast  (done  generally  by  winding  several 
times  backwards  ;uid forwards  in  the  mannerof  a  figure  8),  to  its  cleat  or 
pin. 

§  Ropes  from  the  after-part  of  the  head  of  the  topmast  of  the  after-part 
of  the  channels  on  each  side. 

u  Or  shrouds— ropes  from  each  side  the  top-mast-head,  through  the 
cross-tree  arms,  to  the  fore  part  of  the  channels,  between  the  first  and 
second  lower  shroud.  Thoy  are  set  up  or  hauled  taut,  as  are  the  back 
stays,  by  means  of  a  small  tackle,  one  block  of  which  is  hooked  to  the 
thimble  spliced  into  the  lower  end  of  the  shroud  of  backstay,  and  the  oth  - 
er  to  an  eye-bolt  in  the  channels : 

IT  To  turn  her  head  in  the  most  advantageous  direction. 

**  This  term  includes  both  the  tiller  and  the  wheel ;  but,  as  the  yaw- 
ing motion  of  a  small  light  vessel  is  corespondingly  light  and  feeble^ 
though  much  quicker  than  that  of  a  large  vessel,  she  is  best  without  a 
wheel,  which  is'mennt  to  gain  power  at  the  expense  of  tin;e. 

tt  A  rope  or  tackle  for  regulating  the  horizontal  position  of  the  main 
boom- 

II  The  leeward  or  lec-sidc  is  the  opposite  to  windward. 


BEFORE      THE      WIND.  107 

tackle;*  and  lower  the  throat,  and  hoist  the  peak  of  the 
mainsail  tautt  up. 

Hoist  the  gaff  top-sail,t  keeping  the  tack  §  to  windwardii 
of  the  peak  halyards,1F  and  hauling  the  slack  of  the  sheet 
out  before  you  hoist  the  sail  taut  up. 

Set  the  tack,  and  heave  the  sheet  well  taut. 


BEFORE   THE    WIND.** 

With  the  Main  Boom  over  to  StarhoardA'^ 

la  managing  the  helm,  be  careful  not  to  jibe  the  main- 
sail. 

When  a  vessel  is  going  large,  tt  the  helmsman  should 
always  place  himself  on  the  weather  side  of  the  tiller,  or 

*  A  compound  tackle,  used  in  cutter-rigged  vessels,  instead  of  a  back- 
stay to  the  lower  mast,  on  account  of  its  easy  removal  allowing  the  main 
beam  to  go  forward,  in  going  large. 

f  The  nautical  waj'  of  pronouncing  and  wvW.mg  tight. 

:  The  sail  above  the  mainsail.  The  sheet  hauls  out  to  a  small  block  on 
the  outer  end  of  the  gaiT. 

§Tack  is  the  lOAvermo- 1  corner  opposite  to  the  sheet,  in  all  fore  and  aft 
•ail.s  and  studding  sails. 

a  The  windward  or  weather  side,  is  that  side  on  which  the  wind 
blows. 

11  The  rope  by  which  the  peak  of  the  gaff  or  boom,  to  which  the  head 
of  the  mainsail  is  fastened,  is  hoisted.  Halyards  always  signifies  a  re<i« 
by  which  a  sail  is  hoisted. 

•  •  That  is  going  the  same  way  the  wind  blows.  Her  course  is  then 
sixteen  points  from  the  wind.    (See  Compass). 

tT  starboard  is  the  right,  and  larboard  the  left  hand  side,  when  looking 
toward  the  head  of  the  vessel . 

:i  Or  free,  not  close  hauled.  Generally  understood  as  having  the  wind 
abaft  the  beam,  or  that  her  course  is  then  eight  points  from  the  wind. 


108  SAILING. 

the  side  opposite  to  that  the  main  boom  is  over,  as  his  view 
of  the  vessel's  head  will  then  be  unobstructed  by  the  sails. 

The  boat  now  running  before  the  wind,  haul  the  tack 
of  mainsail  up. 

If  the  wind  come  dead  aft,  you  may  flatten  aft  the  jib 
and  fore  sail  sheets,*  or  haul  the  foresail  down  to  prevent 
chafing. 

If  the  wind  come  at  all  round  on  the  starboard  quar- 
ter;+  slack  off  the  boom  guy;  t  haul  in  the  main  sheet 
till  you  get  the  boom  a-midships  §  or  nearly  so ;  port  II  the 
helm,  and  jib  the  mainsail;  slack  off  the  main  sheet 
again,  and  hook  the  guy  on  the  larboard  side;  haul  taut 
the  starboard  runner  and  tackle,  and  overhaul  the  lar- 
board one;  the  same  with  the  topping  lilt; IT  hoist  the 
head  sails.**  and  shift  the  sheets  over. 


•  Ropes  fast  to  the  aftermost  lower  corner  of  the  jib  and  foresail,  to 
hold  them  down.  The  jib  has  two  ropes  or  sheets,  ftist  to  its  corner,  one 
oi'  which  comes  on  each  side  the  fore>tay,  for  the  convc  nience  of  tack- 
ing, &c.  The  foresail  has  only  one  sheet,  which  is  fast  to  the  traveller  or 
ring,  on  the  horse  or  bar  of  iron  which  crosses  from  one  gunwale  to  the 
other,  just  before  the  mast. 

♦  The  point  on  either  side  where  the  side  and  stern  meet. 

:  A  small  tackle,  one  end  of  which  is  hooked  to  the  main  boom,  and 
the  other  forward,  to  keep  the  boom  from  swinging. 

§  Midway  between  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 

oinsteadoflarboard,  when  speaking  of  the  helm,  port  is  the  pnper 
term,  in  contrariety  to  starboard,  used  fur  the  sake  of  distinctness  in,  di- 
recting the  helmsman. 

IT Stout.ropes  which  lead,  one  from  each  side  the  main  boom,  near  its 
outer  end,  through  a  block  on  its  respective  side  the  mast,  just  under  the 
cross  trees,  whence  it  dusceads  abouthalf  way,  and  is  connected  to  the 
deck  or  gunwale  by  a  tackle. 

*  •  Jib  and  foresail. 


WIND      ON      THE      LARBOARD      BEAM.  109 

N.B.  If  you  are  obliged  to  jibe  as  above,  you  must,  in 
the  following  directions  for  bringing  the  wind  on  your 
beam,  read  larboard,  for  starboard,  and  vice  versd. 


BRINGING   THE   VESSEL   WITH   THE   WIND   ON   THE 
LARBOARD   BEAM.* 

Supposing  that  you  have  not  jibed,  starboard  the  helm 

a  little,  and  let  the  vessel  spring  her  lufFt  with  her  head 

to  the  northward. 
Slack  the  boom  guy,  and  haul  in  the  main  sheet. 
Haul  aft  i  the  jib  sheet  and  bowline  §  the  foresail. 
If  she  come  up  fast,  port  the  helm  II  a  little,  and  meet 

her,  then  right  H  it,  when  she  lays  her  proper  course. 
Hook  and  haul  taut  the  lee  runner  and  tackle. 
You  will  now  find  it  necessary  to  carry  the  helm  a  little 

a-port  or  a-weather. 


*  That  is.  athwart  or  across  the  waist  of  the  vessel ;  called  a  beam, 
liecause  h  is  in  the  same  direction  that  her  beams  lay,  or  at  rijjht  angles 
with  her  keel.  Her  head  is  then  eight  points  from  the  wind.— The  wind 
is  said  to  be  abaft  the  he<mi,  or  before  the  beam,  according  as  the  vessel's 
liead  is  more  or  less  than  eight  points  from  the  wind. 

f  Sail  nearer  to  the  wind. 

:  That  is,  toward  the  hinder  part  or  stern. 

§  A  rope  made  fast  to  the  foremost  shroud,  and  passed  through  a 
thimble  in  the  after-leach  of  the  foresail,  then  round  the  shroud  again, 
and  round  the  sheet, 

D  Always  put  the  helm  the  contrary  way  to  that  which  you  went  the 
vessel's  head  to  turn. 

TIThat  is  bring  it  a-midships;  the  same  with  steady. 


110  SAILING. 

If  instead  of  directing  our  course  eastward,  we  had 
preferred  doing  so  westward,  we  must  have  jibed  previ- 
ous to  bringing  the  wind  on  the  beam,  and  then  the  prece- 
ding operations  would  necessarily  have  been,  to  a  corres- 
ponding extent,  reversed. 


CLOSE  HAULING  THE  VESSEL.* 

To  haul  the  vessel  to  the  wind ;  ease  the  helm  downt  a 
little. 

Haul  in  the  main  sheet  upon  the  proper  mark. 

Bowse  the  fore-sheet,  and  haul  the  jib-sheet  well  aft. 

Bowse  the  runner  and  tackle  well  taut. 

The  vessel  is  now  on  the  wind,  plies  to  windward,  or 
is  close  hauled.? 

Being  now  apt  to  gripe,  or  come  up  into  the  wind  with 
a  sudden  jerk,  now  and  again,  she  will  carry  her  helm 
more  or  less  a-weather. 

The  helmsman  must  watch  the  weather-leach  of  the 
mainsail,  to  prevent  the  vessel  getting  her  head  in  the 
wind. 

•  To  haul  the  sheets  aboard,  or  more  a  midships,  )>>■  means  of  which 
the  vessel's  head  will  come  closer  to  the  point  the  wind  blows  from. 

t  To  leeward. 

I  These  terms  all  implj' one  thing,  viz.  that  the  vessel  is  sailing  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  point  whence  the  wind  blows.  No  square  rigged 
vessel  will  sail  within  less  than  six ;  and  no  fore  and  aft  rigged  vessel, 
witliin  less  than  five  points  of  the  wind  to  have  any  head  way. 


TACKING.  Ill 


Having  got.  abreast  or  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bor, haul  the  fore  bowline.     '  Ready  about.' T 

Put  your  helm  up,  or  to  windward  a  little,  and  let  the 
vessel  go  rather  off  the  wind,  to  get  good  way  on  her_ 
then  gently  down,  or  to  leeward  with  it,  Avhich  is  an! 
nounced  by  the  helmsman  calling,  '  Helm's  a  lee.' 

Let  fly  the  jib-sheet;  this  takes  off  the  balance  of  wind 
from  her  head,  and  acts  in  concert  with  the  helm  in  sweep- 
ing her  stern  to  leeward,  or  rather  in  allowing  her  head 
to  come  quicker  up  into  the  wind. 

The  man  who  attends  the  jib-sheet  must  carefully  gath- 
er in  the  slack?  of  the  one  opposite  to  that  which  he  let 

go- 
When  the  jib  comes  over  the  larboard  side  of  thestay,§ 
haul  the  larboard  jib  sheetwell  aft. 


k 


*  To  turn  a  vessel  from  one  side  to  the  other ,  with  her  head  toward 
the  wind.  When  a  vessel  is  obliged  to  tack  several  times  successively  to 
get  to  windward,  she  is  said  to  be  beating  to  windward  ;  when  to  gel  up 
or  down  a  harbor,  channel,  &c.,  beating  up  or  down,  &c. ;  when  trying 
to  get  off  a  lee  shore,  clawing  off. 

A  vessel's  tacks  are  always  to  the  windAvard  and  forward  ;  and  her 
sheet  to  leeward  and  aft ;  whence  the  terms  larboard  or  starboard  tacks, 
meaning  that  she  has  her  tacks  aboard  on  the  lai-board  or  starboard  side. 

t  A  command,  that  all  hands  are  to  be  attentive,  and  at  their  stations, 
•xfor  tacking. 

I  Or  loose  rope. 

§  The  fore  stay,  or  large  r  ope,  from  the  lower  mast  head  to  the  stem 
head,  to  prevent  the  mast  from  springing  when  the  vessel  is  sending 
deep,  or  fallen  into  the  hollow  between  two  waves,  after  pitching. 


112  SAILING. 

■When  the  mainsail  is  filled,  let  draw  the  fores^l.* 

Right  the  helm,  and  shift  over  the  tack  of  the  mainsail. 

One  hand  should  attend  the  main-sheet,  to  gather  in  the 
slack  till  the  boom  is  a-midships,  and  then  ease  it  off  as  the 
sail  fills,  and  the  vessel  lays  over  to  port. 

When  the  vessei  is  in  stays,  and  it  is  doubtful  where 
she  will  come  round,  or  in  order  to  make  her  come  round 
when  she  goes  astern,  shift  the  helm  to  the  opposite  side. 

Now  the  vessel  is  about,  upon  the  starboard  tack. 


REEFING.    TAKING  IN  SAIL,   ETC. 


Haul  the  fore-sheet  up  to  windward ;  bowline  it  there ; 
and  heave  her  to. 

Keep  the  tiller  shipt,  and  lash  it  a-lee. 

Take  in  the  gaff  topsail;  lower  the  halyards;  and 
haul  down. 

Have  a  hand  aloft  to  unbend  the  sheet  from  the  sail, 
and  make  it  fast  to  the  main  halyard  bolt ;  and  unlash 
the  gaff  topsail,  and  send  it  down. 

Lower  the  main  halyards  and  peak  to  the  second  reef 
cringle;  and  reef  the  mainsail. 


*  Tliat  is,  let  go  the  bowline  which  holds  the  sail  to  this,  now,  weather 
shroud.  It  was  held  tliere  till  now,  that  the  wind  might  act  upon  it  with 
greater  power  to  turn  tlie  vessel,  from  the  time  her  head  was  about  half 
way  round.  The  expression  is  derived  from  its  being  necessary,  in  larg- 
er vessels  of  a  similar  rig,  to  ease  the  rope  graduallj'  as  the  sail  draws 
it.  From  the  time  the  jib  sheet  is  let  fly,  till  the  foresail  is  let  draw,  the 
>vssel  is  said  to  be  in  stays. 


TACKING.  113 

Hook  the  reef  tackle*  to  the  first  earing  ;t  haul  upon 
it  till  the  cringle  t  is  close  down  upon  the  boom ;  and  be- 
lay the  tackle. 

Pass  a  small  gasketll  through  the  tack,  and  the  first 
reef  cringle,  and  lash  the  two  firmly  together,  taking 
to  gather  in  snug  the  luff  of  the  sail,  so  that  the  leach 
rope  belonging  to  it  forms  a  sort  of  snake  near  the  mast. 

Haul  up  the  tack,  and  bowse  upon  the  weather  peak 
line,  keeping  the  other  part  fast  a-midships  of  the  boom. 
This  will  hold  the  belly  of  the  sail  partly  to  windward, 
and  make  it  easier  to  tie  the  reef-points.  Observe  to  keep 
the  foot  rope  outside  and  under  the  sail. 

Let  one  man  jump  upon  the  boom  to  tie  the  outer  points 
so  far  that  the  rest  can  be  tied  on  board. 

Let  go  the  tack  and  the  peak  line,  always  keeping  the 
ends  of  this  fast  under  the  boom. 

Hoist  the  sail  taut  up ;  and  set  taut  the  tack  tackle. 


*  A  small  tackle  formed  of  two  hook  blocks,  one  of  which  is  ho<'kea 
to  the  under  part  of  the  boom  about  one  third  from  the  mast,  and  the  oth- 
er farther  aft.    The  fall  is  belayed  to  a  cleat  under  the  boom. 

t  A  stout  rope,  one  end  of  which  is  made  fest  to  the  boom  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  mast  as  the  reef  cringle  to  which  itb^longs.  It  ascends 
passes  through  the  cringle,  descends  and  passes  through  a  sheave  on  the 
side  of  the  boom,  then  in  board,  and  is  stopped  to  the  boom  by  means  of 
its  lanyard  or  small  line  spliced  into  its  end  for  the  purpose.  This  lan- 
yard is  also  to  make  it  fast  when  the  sail  is  reefed  and  you  wish  to  re- 
move the  tackle. 

I A  short  loop  of  rope  with  a  thimble  or  small  ring  of  iron  beside  it, 
spliced  to  the  leach  of  the  sail. 

n  A  rope  made  by  plaiting  rope  yarns. 
8 


Ill  SAILING. 

Shift  the  jib  to  Na.  2. 

Overhaul  the  jib  purchase;  let  go  the  outhaul;  haul 
the  jib  down ;  unhook  the  tack  ,  unbend  the  sheets ;  and 
send  the  sail  down  below. 

You  have  now  got  one  reef  in  the  mainsail.  If  it 
come  on  to  blow  harder,  and  yoa  want  a  second  reef, 
lower  the  sail,  and  haul  on  the  peak  line  as  before ;  nip- 
per the  first  reef  earing  so  as  to  hold  it  a  short  time  ;  let 
go  the  reef  tackle,  and  unhook  it  from  the  earing,  which 
make  fast  with  its  lanyard  round  the  boom. 

You  have  now  got  the  tackle  to  use  for  the  second  reef. 

Proceed  as  lor  the  first  reef. 

Shift  the  jib  to  No.  3,  and  proceed  as  before. 

If  a  third,  the  same,  after  rigging  the  bowsprit. 

Take  the  fid  *  or  bolt  out  of  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit, 
and  rig  the  bowsprit  in  about  one  fid  hole. 

Haul  taut  the  topmast  stay  and  bowsprit  rigging. 

Bend  and  set  the  small  jib  in  the  same  way  as  any  other . 

You  may  want  to  stow  the  mainsail,  set  the  trysail,  and 
make  her  otherwise  snug  in  proportion. 

Sway  away  upon  the  top  rope;  lift  the  mast  a  little  to 
let  the  man  unfid  it ;  and  lower  the  topmast  down  in  the 
!?lings. 

Lower  the  fore  halyards  ;  and  reef  the  foresail. 

Gather  the  lufl'  of  the  sail  up  ,  make  the  foremast  reef 


•  A  bar  of  wood  or  iron,  which  passe?  horizont-ally  through  a  hole  in 
caclibiu  and  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit,  to  secure  it  in  its  place,  much  in 
the  sarue  way  that  a  carriage  pole  is  securea. 


PASSING      OTHER      VESSELS,      ETC.  HO 

earing  cringle  fast  as  the  lack  ;  shift  the  sheet  to  the  clue 
of  the  sail  to  the  after  reef  cringle  ;  and  tie  the  points. 

If  the  weather  is  very  heavy,  haul  down  the  stay  sail 
and  tend  the  vessel  with  a  tackle  upon  the  weather  jib 
sheet. 


When  it  comes  fine  weather  again,  make  sail  in  pre- 
cisely the  reverse  order  to  that  in  which  you  shortened  it. 

Continue  to  tack  in  the  wind's  eye  till  you  are  to  wind- 
ward of  the  harbor. 

PASSING   OTHER   VESSELS. 

All  vessels  sailing  before  the  wind  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  those  upon  wind. 

In  the  river  Thames,  vessels  which  sail  with  the  lar- 
board tack  aboard,  keep  away  for  those  withihe  starboard 
tack  aboard. 

BRINGING  THE   VESSEL   INTO   HARBuR. 

Lower  and  haul  down  the  gaff  topsail. 

Let  go  the  jib  tack  or  outhaul ;  *  lower  the  jib ;  and  pull 
on  the  down  hauler,  to  bring  the  traveller  in. 

Haul  the  tack  of  the  mainsail  up;  and  lower  the  peak. 

Down  foresail. 

Let  a  small  boat  run  away  the  warp  to  the  quay. 

Lower  and  stow  the  mainsail. 

Unbend  the  jib,  and  stow  it  below,  if  dry  and  not  im- 
mediately wanted,  and  hook  the  halyards  to  the  traveller, 

*  A  rope  made  fast  to  the  traveller,  to  haul  ilouttothe  bowsprit  end, 


116  SAILING. 

close  in  by  the  stem.  If  otherwise,  hoist  upon  the  hal- 
yards, and  let  it  hang  to  dry  if  it  require  it,  to  stop  it  up 
and  down  the  foremost  shroud. 

Haul  the  vessel  to  the  moorings,  and  moor  properly, 
putting  fenders  over  to  keep  her  from  the  quay. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   PLATE  XXVI. 
Fig.    1. 

The  mariner's  compass. 

Fig.  2. 
Plan  Of  the  deck,  with  the  bowsprit  rigged  out,  &c. 

1.  Bowsprit.  9.  9.  Channels. 

2.  2.  Bowsprit  shrouds.  lo.  Main  hatchway. 

3.  Stern  head.  ll.  Companion  and  binnacle. 

4.  Bowsprit  bitts.  12.  Tiller. 

5.  Fore  hatchway.  13.  Cabin  skylight. 

6.  Windlass  and  bitts.  14.  Rudder- head  and  case. 

7.  Fore  sheet  horse.  15  Tatfril. 

8.  Place  of  the  mast. 

PLATE   XXVII. 

Pleasure  boat,  cutter-rigged,  laying  at  anchor ;  foresail 
and  mainsail  bent  and  stowed. 

1.  Vane  and  spindle.  5.   Trussel  trees. 

2.  Truck.  (.  Lower  mast. 
6.  Topmast.  7.  7.  Cross  trees. 
4.  Cap.  8.  Bowsprit. 


DESCRIPTION      OF     THE     PLATES. 


117 


9.   Gaft"  with  mainsail  furlcil. 

10.  Main  boom. 

11.  Tiller. 

12.  Rudder. 

13.  Stem 

14.  U.  Topmast  shrouds. 

15.  Topmast  backstay. 

16.  Topmast  stay. 

17.  Runner  and  tackle. 
;8.  Traveller. 

19.  Channel. 


20.  Forestay,  with  the  foresail  furled 

to  it. 

21.  Bobstay. 

22    Topping  lifts. 

23.  Topping  lift  blocks. 

24.  IMain  sheet. 

25.  25.  Peak  halyards. 

26.  Jib  halyards. 

27.  Cable, 

23.  Forcshect. 


PLATE   XXVIII. 

The  vessel  going  down  the  harbor  with  all  sails  set, 
steering  south,  belore  a  light  breeze. 

1.  G.iflf  topsail.  10.  10.  10.  Crmgles. 

11.  Balance  reef. 

12.  Anchor  stock. 

13.  Windlass. 

14.  Foresheet  horse. 

15.  Main  hatch. 

16.  Companion  and  binnacle. 


2.  Foresail. 

3.  Mainsail. 

4.  Tack  tricing  line. 

5.  Peak  line,  or  signal  halyards 

6.  7,  8.  The  1st,  2d,  3d  reefs. 
9.  9.  9.  Reef  eatings. 


PLATE    XXIX. 

The  vessel  oLitside  the  harbor,  steering  east,  with  a 
smart  breeze  on  the  larboard  beam. 

1.  Jib.  3.   Anchor. 

2.  Foresail.  4.  Eyebolt  of  the  bow,?prit  shrouds. 

PLATE  XXX. 

The  vessel  trying  for  the  harbor  in  a  heavy  gale,  close 
to  the  wind  as  she  can  lay,  on  the  starboard  tack,  under  a 
reefed  mainsail  and  foresail,  bowsprit  reefed,  and  topmast 
lowered. 


118 


RIDING, 


GENERAL  STYLE  IN  RIDING, 


The  general  art  of  riding,  sometimes  called  manege  ri- 
ding, to  distinguish  it  from  its  modifications  in  road-ri- 
ding, hunting,  racing,  &c.,  teaches  us  to  place  every  part 
of  the  body  so  that  it  can  act  upon  the  horse  in  ever}'' 
emergency,  shows  the  effect  of  all  the  aids  or  modes  of 
guiding  him,  and  enables  us  to  render  him  obedient  to  the 
slightest  touch. 

By  never  suffering  the  ascendancy  to  be  transferred  to 
the  horse,  by  in  general  preventing  him  from  making  all 
his  speed,  and  by  exhausting  him  the  sooner  the  more  he 
exerts  himself  without  permission,  this  method  bestows 
upon  the  rider  perfect  security. 

This  method,  indeed,  is  the  foundation  of  the  art,  and 
that  without  which  the  greatest  excellence  cannot  be  at- 
tained. 

An  intimate  knowledge  of  this  method  is  necessary, 
even  to  our  abandoning  it  when  conv^enient,to  our  adopt- 
ing the  styles,  afterwards  to  be  described,  for  more  extend- 
ed and  rapid  paces,  or  for  long  continued  riding,  to  our 
suffering  the  horse  to  take  more  or  less  of  ascendancy, 
and  to  our,  when  necessary,  easily  recovering  that  superi- 
ority of  the  hand,  of  w^hich  those  who  are  ignorant  of 
this  fundamental  method  are  less  capable. 


n» 


THE  SADDLE. 
Fig.  1. 

a.  the  pommel. 

b.  . . ,  cantle, 

c.  . . .  panel. 

d.  ...  flaps. 

c.  . . .  stirrup  leather. 
/"....  girths. 

BRIDLES.    • 

Fig.  2. 

a.  b.  the  headstall  with  the  cheekstraps. 

c.  ...  of  the  curb. 

iL ...  of  the  bridoon  or  snaffle  passing  through  it  over  the 
poll. 

c.      the  nosestrap  (seldom  found  in  any  bat  militar)^  bri- 
dles. 

/.      the  throatlash. 

Fig.  3. 

A  twisted  snaffle-bit. 

Fig.  4. 

A  plain  snaffle-bit. 

Fig  5. 

A  Weymouth  curb,  with  chain  and  chain-strap  (a)  at- 
tached. 

Fig.  6. 

A  common  curb  bit,  with  the  upset  in  the  mouth-piece. 


120 


THE   HORSE  AND   EQUIPMENTS. 

Plate  XXXI.  and  XXXII.  give  better  ideas  of  the 
horse  and  his  equipments  than  the  longest  and  most  de- 
tailed description.  The  reader  will  therefore  examine 
them  in  succession. 

We  have  here  only  to  add  those  circumstances  as  to  the 
equipment  of  the  horse,  which  could  not  be  communicated 
by  that  otherwise  briefer  and  more  impressive  method. 

The  SHOES  of  a  horse  have  much  to  do  with  his,  and 
consequently  wiih  his  rider's  comfort.  It  is  therefore  im- 
portant to  know  that  he  is  properly  shod. 

To  effect  this,  the  shoe  should  be  fitted  to  the  foot,  and 
not  the  foot  to  the  shoe. 

Neither  heel  nor  frog  should  be  pared  more  than  merely 
to  take  off  w^hat  is  ragged  ;  for  no  reproduction  takes 
place  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hoof  Farriers  ruin  near- 
ly all  horses  by  doing  otherwise.  Indeed,  they  are  not  to 
lie  trusted  with  this  operation,  which,  after  shoeing,  any 
gentleman  may  perform  with  his  pocket-knife. 

The  sole  of  the  foot,  then,  must  not  be  hollowed  cut, 
but  only  the  outer  wall  pared  flat  or  even  with  the  sole, 
and  most  at  the  toe.  Nor,  above  all  things,  ought  the  far- 
rier's finishing  rasp  all  round  the  edge  of  the  horn  imme- 
diately above  the  shoe  to  be  permitted.  Neither  ought 
nails  to  be  driven  far  backwards  towards  the  heel,  where 
the  horn  is  softer  and  more  sensible,  especially  at  the  in- 
ner quarter. 

When  a  horse  has  a  high  heel,  the  foot,  except  the  frog, 
may  be  pared  flat,  but  not  hollowed  out  or  opened.  When 


THE    HORSE    AND   EQUIP  MENTS,  121 

a  horse  has  a  low  heel,  the  foot  should  be  pared  only  at 
the  toes.  When  a  horse  has  ashort  pastern,  he  should  have 
a  short  shoe,  because  a  long  one  would  compel  him  to 
bring  his  heel  more  back  u'ard  than  the  unpliableness  of  his 
pastern  would  easily  admit. 

The  SADDLE  should  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
horse.  Before,  the  bearings  should  be  clear  of  the  plate- 
bone  ;  behind,  they  should  nut  extend  further  than  within 
four  inches  of  the  hips  ;  and  their  pressure  shoudbe  equal 
on  every  part  intended  to  be  touched.  The  closer  the 
saddle  then  comes,  the  better,  if  neither  the  weight  of  the 
rider,  nor  settling  of  the  panel,  can  possiby  injure  the 
withers  or  chine. 

Before  mounting,  the  rider  should  examine  whether  the 
saddle,  girths,  straps,  bits,  bridle,  &c.  are  all  good  and 
well  fixed. 

When  the  saddle  is  on  the  horse,  the  lowest  part  of  the 
seat  should  be  rather  behind  its  centre,  as  it  is  there  that 
the  weight  of  the  body  should  la  11,  and  by  that  means  that 
the  thighs  can  keep  their  proper  position.  The  best  test 
of  the  adaptation  of  the  seat  is,  when  the  rider,  without  stir- 
rups or  effort,  easily,  falls  into  his  proper  place  in  the 
Saddle. 

Stirrups  should  not  be  used  until  the  pupil  is  capable 
of  riding  without  them. 

The  proper  length  of  the  stii'rup  is,  when  the  upper  edge 
of  the  horizontal  bar  reaches  a  finger's  breadth  below  the 
inner  ankle-bone.  When  the  feetarein  the  stirrups,  the 
heels  should  be  about  two  inches  lower  then  the  toes. 

No  more  than  the  natural  weight  of  the  limbs  should  be 


122  RIDING. 

borne  in  the  stirrups.  It  is  by  an  accurate  position,  and 
an  easy  play  of  the  ankle  and  instep,  that  the  stirrup  is 
retained,  so  as  to  slip  neither  forward  nor  backward,  even 
if  the  toe  be  raised  for  a  moment. 

The  position  on  horseback  with  stirrups,  differs  from 
that  without  stirrups,  only  in  this,  that  the  thigh  being,  by 
the  stirrups,  relieved  from  the  weight  of  the  leg  and  foot 
the  knee  is  slightly  bent,  and  rather  before  the  line  w^hich 
these  form  in  the  position  without  stirrups. 

In  hussar  riding,hunting,  &c.  the  breadth  of  four  fingers 
should  intervene  between  the  fork  and  the  saddle,  when 
the  rider  stands  up. 

Spurs  should  never  be  used  but  by  an  accomplished 
rider. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  employ  them,  they  should  be 
applied  a  few  inches  behind  the  girth,  as  low  as  possible, 
and  with  the  lightest  touch  capable  of  producing  the 
effect. 

As  to  the  BRIDLE, —  in  order  to  give  the  greatest  possi- 
ble ease  to  the  snaffle,  a  large  and  polished  bit  is  necessary. 
Most  bits  are  too  small  and  long,  bend  back  over  the  bars 
of  the  horse's  jaW;  work  like  pincers,  and  cut  his  mouth. 

To  give  the  greatest  degree  of  severity,  the  bit  while 
hot  is  twisted  into  a  spiral  for^ja,  so  as  to  present  to  the  jaw 
a  rough  and  sharp  surface,  capable  of  pressing  the  bars  or 
lips  with  greater  or  less  severity. 

The  degrees  of  punishment  which  this  bit  is  capable  of 
inflicting,  are  generally  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of 
correction.  It  is  therefore  best  to  ride  with  a  snaffle, 
and  to  use  a  curb  only  occasionally. 


THE      HORSE      AND      EaUIPMENTS.  123 

In  all  cases,  the  rider  should  observe,  that  the  horse  15? 
furnished  with  a  bit  proper  for  him.  II  too  light,  it  may- 
have  the  effect  already  described.  If  too  jheavy,  it  may 
i  ncline  him  to  carry  the  head  low,  or  to  rest  upon  the  hand, 
which  jockies  call  '  making  use  of  a  fifth  leg.' 

The  simplest  and  most  useful  of  the  curb  kind  is  the 
Weymouth  bit,  which  consists  of  a  strong  plain  mouth- 
piece, of  uniform  thickness,  without  any  upset,  butmerely 
a  curve  forwards,  to  give  ease  to  the  tongue. 

The  centre  of  the  reins  should  be  accurately  marked  . 
and  when  both  reins  are  held  in  one  hand,  andthe  near 
rein  has  to  pass  under  the  little  finger,  and  over  the  fore- 
finger, on  the  outside  of  the  off  rein,  the  latter  should  be 
held  about  a  half  an  inch  shorter,  and  ihe  centre  should  be 
brought  proportionally  toward  the  left. 

In  adjusting  the  bridle  on  the  horse's  head,  the  headstall 
parallel  to  and  above  the  cheekbone,  must  have  its  length 
so  regulated  as  to  permit  the  mouth-piece  of  the  curb  to 
rest  on  the  bars,  an  inch  above  the  lower  tushes  in  horses, 
and  about  two  inches  above  the  corner  teeth  in  mares 
which  have  no  tushes.  The  nose-band,  lying  under  the 
snatfie  headstall,  must  be  buckled  so  loosely  that  a  finger 
can  pass  freely  under  it  and  over  the  horse's  nose.— The 
bit  of  the  snaffle  must  be  higher,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to 
wrinkle  the  corner  of  the  mouth.  The  throatlash  must 
be  buckled  rather  loose.  The  mane  is  usually  cut  close 
under  the  headstall ;  the  finger  clears  any  part  of  the  fore- 
top  interfering  with  it;  and  the  remainder,  when  combed 
smooth,  is  put  either  over  or  under  the  front. 

If  the  rider  uses  a  curb,  he  should  make  it  a  rule  to  hook 


124  RIDING. 

on  the  chain  himself ;  for  the  quietest  horse  may  bring  his 
rider  into  danger,  if  the  curb  hurt  him. 

The  curb-chain  must  pass  under  the  snaffle.  The  rider 
should  therefore  put  his  right  hand  under  the  snaffle  reins 
to  take  hold  of  the  curb  chain,  and  introduce  two  fingers 
of  his  left  within  the  cheek  of  the  bit,  and  aiding  these 
with  his  thumb,  take  hold  of  the  curb  hook.  The  end 
links  of  the  curb-chain  being  in  his  right  hand,  he  should 
turn  the  chain  to  the  right  and  under,  or  as  he  would  a 
screw,  till  every  link  lies  flat  and  smooth,  and  then,  with- 
out losing  a  half  turn,  put  that  link  on  the  hook  which 
appears  to  be  neither  tight  nor  slack.  The  finger  should 
pass  between  the  horse'sjaw  and  the  curb,  which  in  this 
case  hangs  down  upon  his  under  lip. 

It  is  necessary  also  to  see  how  it  operates.  If  the  branch 
has  liberty  to  move  forty-five  degrees,  or  to  a  right  angle 
it  is  in  the  degree  which  is  in  general  best.  If,  however^ 
one  link  of  the  chain  confine  it  to  thirty-five  degrees,  and 
if  one  link  lower  give  it  fifty-five  degrees,  then  the  man- 
ner of  the  horse's  carrying  his  head  must  determine  which 
is  most  proper:  If  the  horse  naturally  carry  his  nose  high, 
the  branch  may  have  fifty-five,  if  he  bring  his  nose  in,  he 
should  have  thirty-five  degrees. 

If  there  be  a  chain-strap,  it  must  be  placed  so  high  on 
the  branch,  that  when  passed  through  the  ring  in  the  curb 
chain,  it  may  be  buckled  tight  enough  to  prevent  the  horse 
lodging  the  branch  on  his  teeth. 

When  a  horse's  head  is  steady,  when  he  is  light  in  the 
hand,  and  can  obey  its  motions  with  ease,  and  when  he 
can  stop  readily,  the  bit  is  properly  adjusted.    On  the 


MOUNTING      AND      DISMOUNTING.  125 

contrary,  if  he  open  his  mouth  as  if  gagged,  writhe  his 
jaws,  draw  his  tongue  above  the  mouth-piece,  or  thrust  it 
out  sidewise,  if  he  fear  the  impression  of  the  bit  have  no  ap- 
puy,  toss  his  head  up  or  down,  carry  it  low,  and  endeavor 
to  force  the  hand,  or  refuse  to  go  forward,  or  run  back- 
ward, the  bit  is  not  properly  adjusted. 

MOUNTING   AND   DISMOUNTING, 

In  MOUNTING,  the  rider,— presenting  himself,  rather  be- 
fore the  horse's  shoulder,  with  his  left  breast  towards  that 
shoulder,  and  with  his  whip  or  switch  in  his  left  hand, — 
t  ikes  with  the  right  hand,  the  snaflle  reins  in  the  centre ; 
— introduces  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand  between  them 
from  before,  the  back  of  that  hand  beingtowards  the  horse's 
head; — places  the  left  hand  below  the  right  on  the  neck 
of  the  horse,  about  twelve  inches  from  the  saddle  ; — draws 
with  the  right  hand  the  reins  through  the  left,  and  shortens 
them,  till  the  left  has  a  light  and  equal  feeling  of  both  reins 
on  the  horse's  mouth; — throws,  with  the  right  hand,  the 
reins  to  the  offside  ; — takes,  with  the  same  hand,  a  lock  of 
the  mane,  brings  it  through  the  left  hand,  and  turns  it 
round  the  left  thumb ; — and  closes  the  left  hand  firmly  on 
the  mane  and  reins. 

The  right  hand,  after  quitting  the  mane,  lays  hold  of  the 
left  stirrup,  the  fingers  being  behind,  and  the  thumb  in 
front  of  it ; — the  left  foot  is  raised  and  put  into  the  stirrup 
as  far  as  the  ball  of  it,  (Plate  XXXIII.) ;— the  right  foot  is 
then  moved  until  the  rider's  face  is  turned  to  the  side  of 
the  horse,  and  looking  across  the  saddle ; — while  the  right 
hand  is  placed  on  the  cantle,  the  left  knee  is  placed  against 


126  RIDING. 

the  saddle  on  the  surcingle,  with  the  left  heel  drawn  back 
to  avoid  touching  the  horse's  side  with  the  toe  ; — by  a 
spring  of  the  right  foot  from  the  instep,  not  by  any  pull 
with  the  right  hand,  the  rider  raises  himself  in  the  stirrup, 
the  knees  firm  against  the  saddle,  the  heels  together  but 
drawn  back  a  little,  and  the  body  erect,  and  partially  sup- 
ported by  the  right  hand  (Plate  XXXIV.) ;— the  right 
hand  moves  from  the  cantle  to  the  pummel,  and  supports 
the  body  ; — the  right  leg  at  the  same  lime  passes  clearly 
over  the  horse's  quarters  to  the  offside;  the  right  knee 
closes  on  the  saddle ;  the  body  comes  gently  into  it ; — 
the  left  hand  quits  the  mane,  and  the  right  the  pummel. 

The  left  or  bndle  hand,  with  the  wrist  rounded  out- 
wards, is  placed  opposite  to  the  centre  of  the  body  and  at 
three  inches  distance  from  it ;  the  right  hand  is  dropped 
by  the  side  of  the  thigh ;  the  stirrup  is  taken  instantly 
with  the  right  foot,  without  the  help  of  hand  or  eye  ;  the 
clothes  are  adjusted ;  and  the  whip  is  exchanged  from  the 
left  hand  to  the  right,  being  held  with  the  lash  upwards, 
but  inclining  a  little  towards  the  left  ear  of  the  horse,  and 
never  leaving  the  right  hand,  except  while  mounting  or 
dismounting.— (Plate  XXXV.) 

The  horse  is  to  be  accustomed  to  stand  still  till  the  rider 
request  him  to  move.  The  habit  of  unsteadiness  is  ac- 
quired from  grooms,  who,  on  going  out  to  water  and  ex- 
ercise, throw  themselves  over  a  horse  from  some  eleva- 
tion and  give  a  kick  to  the  animal  even  before  being  fairly 
upon  it. 

If  a  groom  attend  at  mounting,  he  ought  not  to  be  suf- 
fered to  touch  the  reins,  but  only  that  part  of  the  bridle 
which  comes  down  the  cheek. 


MOUNTING     AND     DISMOUNTING.  127 

In  DISMOUNTING,  the  whip  is  to  be  returned  into  the  left 
hand  ; — the  right  hand  takes  hold  of  the  rein  above  the 
left ;— the  right  foot  quits  the  stirrup  ;---the  left  hand  slides 
forward  on  the  rein,  to  about  twelve  inches  from  the  sad- 
dle, leeling  the  horse's  mouth  very  lightly;— the  righc 
hand  dropping  the  reins  to  the  off  side,  takes  a  lock  of 
the  mane,  brings  it  through  the  left,  and  twists  it  round 
the  left  thumb ;— the  lingers  of  the  left  hand  close  on  it; 
the  right  hand  is  placed  on  the  pummel ;  the  body  being 
kept  erect. 

The  body  is  supported  with  the  right  hand  and  left  foot ; 
ihe  right  leg  is,  without  touching  the  horse's  hind-quar- 
ters or  the  saddle,  brought  gently  to  the  near  side,  with 
the  heels  close,  care  being  taken  not  to  bend  the  right 
knee  lest  the  spur  should  touch  the  horse ;— the  right  hand 
passes  at  the  same  time  to  the  cantle,  to  preserve  the  bal- 
ance, as  in  the  act  of  mounting ;  the  body  is  gently  low- 
ered until  the  right  toe  touches  the  ground ;  resting  on 
the  right  foot,  the  left  stirrup  is  quitted,  and  the  left  foot 
placed  in  line  with  the  horse's  hoofs;— the  hands  remain- 
ing as  in  the  former  motion. 

Both  hands  then  quit  their  holds  of  the  mane  and  can- 
tie  ;— and  the  right  hand  lays  hold  of  the  snaffle  rein  near 
the  ring  of  the  bit. 

In  MOUNTING  WITHOUT  STIRRUPS, — after  taking  up  the 
reins,  instead  of  seizing  the  mane,  the  rider  lays  hold  of 
the  pummel  and  cantle,  and,  by  a  spring  of  both  legs  from 
the  insteps,  raises  the  body  to  the  centre  of  the  saddle. 

By  a  second  spring  of  both  arms,  the  right  leg  is  car- 
ried over  the  horse,  and  the  rider  enters  his  proper  seat  by 
closing  the  knees  on  the  saddle,  and  sliding  gently  into  it. 


128  RIDING. 

In  DISMOUNTING  WITHOUT  STIRRUPS,  Oil  either  side  of  the 
horse,  the  rider  throwsthe  weight  of  the  body  on  the  hands 
placed  on  the  pummel,  and,  by  a  spring,  raises  the  body 
out  of  the  saddle  before  the  leg  is  brought  over  the  horse. 

THE  SEAT. 

The  seat  must  be  understood  in  an  extended  sense  as 
the  disposition  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  con- 
formity with  the  action  of  the  horse;  and  its  effect  is  the 
rider's  being  firm  in  the  saddle,  when  he  might  be  other- 
wise throM^n  forward  over  the  horse's  head,  or  backward 
over  his  tail. 

The  FUNDAMENTAL  SEAT  is  that  intermediate  one  of 
w^hich  all  others  are  modifications,  and  in  which  the  rider 
sits  when  the  horse  is  going  straightforward,  without  any 
bend  in  his  position. 

In  describing  this,  it  is  first  necessary  to  consider  the 
rider's  relation  to  the  horse. — He  must  sit  on  that  part  of 
the  animal's  body  which,  as  he  springs  in  his  paces,  is  the 
centre  of  motion ;  from  which,  of  course,  any  weight 
would  be  most  difficultly  shaken.  The  place  of  this  seat  is 
that  part  of  the  saddle  into  which  the  rider's  body  would 
naturally  slide  were  he  to  ride  without  stirrups.  This  seat 
is  to  be  preserved  only  by  a  proper  balance  of  his  body, 
and  its  adaptation  to  even  the  most  violent  counteractions 
of  the  horse.  Turf  jockies  necessarily  sit  further  back, 
that  they  may  employ  the  pulls. 

It  is  necessary  to  consider  the  horseman  in  various  parts, 
and  to  explain  their  different  functions :  1st,  the  lower 
part,  as  being  here  the  principal  one,  namely,  the  thighs, 


THE   SEAT.  129 

with  the  legs  as  dependent  on  them;  2dly,  the  upper  part, 
namely,  the  body,  with  the  arms  as  dependent  on  it. 

The  thighs,  from  the  fork  to  the  knees,  are  commonly 
called  the  immovable  parts,  and  upon  them  the  whole  atti- 
tude depends.  They  must  not  wriggle  or  roll,  so  as  either 
to  disturb  the  horse,  or  render  the  seat  loose ;  but  they 
may  be  relaxed  when  the  horse  hesitates  to  advance. 

The  legs  occasionally  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  thighs 
by  a  grasp  with  the  calves;  and  they  likewise  aid,  support, 
and  chastise  the  horse. 

The  body,  from  the  fork  upwards,  must  alwaj's  be  in  a 
situation  to  take  the  corresponding  motion,  and  preserve 
the  balance. 

The  position  of  the  arms  is  dependent  on  that  of  the 
body,  but  they  also  exercise  new  functions. 


As  a  good  seat  is  the  basis  of  all  excellence  in  riding, 
we  shall  consider  these  parts  in  detail. 
In  relation  to  the  TmcHs,  the  rider,  sitting  in  the  middle  of 
the  saddle,  must  rest  chiefly  upon  their  division,  vulgarly 
called  the  fork,  and  very  slightly  upon  the  hips.  The 
thighs  turned  inward,  must  rest  flat  upon  the  sides  of  the 
saddle,  without  grasping ;  for  the  rider's  weight  gives  suf- 
ficient hold,  and  the  pressure  of  the  thighs  on  the  saddle 
would  only  lift  him  above  it.  The  knees  must  be  stretched 
down  and  kept  back,  so  as  to  place  the  thighs  several  de- 
grees short  of  a  perpendicular ;  but  no  gripe  must  be  made 
with  them,  unless  there  be  danger  of  losing  all  other 
hold. 

9 


130  RIDING. 

If  the  thighs  are  upon  their  inner  or  flat  side  in  the 
saddle,  both  the  legs  and  the  feet  will  be  turned  as  they 
ought  to  be.  Thus  turned,  they  must  be  on  a  line  paral- 
lel to  that  of  the  rider's  body,  and  must  hang  near  the 
horse's  sides,  but  must  not  touch  ;  yet  they  may  give  an 
additional  hold  to  the  seat,  when  necessary,  and  the  calves 
must  act  in  support  of  the  aids  of  the  hands.  The  heels 
are  to  be  sunk,  and  the  toes  to  be  raised,  and  as  near  the 
horse  as  the  heels,  which  prevents  the  heel  touching  the 
horse. 

As  to  the  BODY. — The  head  must  be  firm,  yet  free.  The 
shoulders  must  be  thrown  back,  and  kept  square,  so  that 
no  pull  of  the  bridle  may  bring  forward  the  shoulder. 
The  chest  must  be  advanced.  The  small  of  the  back 
must  be  bent  a  little  forward. 

The  upper  parts  of  the  arms  must  hang  perpendicularly 
from  the  shoulders.  The  lower  parts  must  be  at  right 
angles  with  the  upper,  and  form  a  horizontal  line  from 
the  elbow  to  the  Utile  finger.  The  elbows  must  be  lightly 
closed  to  the  hips,  and,  without  stiffness,  kept  steady,  or 
they  destroy  the  hand.  The  wrist  must  be  rounded  a 
little  outwards.  The  hands  must  be  about  three  inches 
from  the  body,  and  from  the  pummel  of  the  saddle,  and 
from  four  to  six  inches  apart ;  the  thumbs  and  knuckles 
pointing  towards  each  other,  and  the  finger-nails  towards 
the  body.* 


*  When  in  motion  round  the  manege  or  the  circle,  the  Inward  hand,  or 
that  towards  which  we  turn,  is  to  be  a  little  lower  tliun  the  outward  one. 


THE      BALANCE.  131 

When  the  rider  is  in  the  proper  position  on  horse-back 
without  stirrups,  his  nose,  breast,  knee,  and  instep  are 
nearly  in  a  line;  and  with  stirrups,  his  nose,  breast,  knee , 
and  toe,  are  in  a  line,— (Plate  XXXV). 

The  man  and  the  horse  throughout  are  to  be  of  a  piece. 
When  the  horse  is  at  liberty,  or  disunited,  as  it  is  termed, 
the  rider  sits  at  his  ease ;  and  as  he  collects  and  unites 
his  horse,  so  he  collects  and  unites  himself.  There  must, 
however,  be  no  stiffness  of  manner,  more  than  in  sitting 
on  a  chair  at  home  5  for  it  is  ease  and  elegance  which 
distinguish  the  gentleman. 


THE  BALANCE. 

The  balance  in  riding  preserves  the  body  from  that  in- 
clination to  one  side  or  the  other  which  even  the  ordina- 
ry paces  of  the  horse,  in  the  trot  or  gallop,  would  other- 
wise occasion.  It  accompanies  and  corresponds  with 
every  motion  of  the  animal,  without  any  employment  of 
strength,  consequently,  the  rider  sits  so  firmly  that  noth- 
ing can  move  his  seat. 

To  illustrate  this  we  may  add,  that,  if  the  horse  work 
straight  and  upright  on  his  legs,  the  body  must  be  in  the 
same  upright  direction  ;  as  the  horse  moves  into  a  trot, 
the  body  must  be  inclined  a  little  more  back ;  in  the'  gal- 
lop, also  in  leaping,  or  in  any  violent  movements  of  the 
horse,  the  body  must  chiefly  be  kept  back ;  and,  when  the 
horse  bends  and  leans,  as  he  does  when  on  a  circle,  or 
trotting  briskly  round  a  corner,  the  body  must  lean  simi- 
larly, or  the  balance  will  be  lost. 

Throughout  the  whole,  the  figure  must  be  pliant  to 


132  RIDING. 

every  action  of  the  horse  ;  for  the  f balance  can  be  main- 
tained only  by  as  many  different  positions  as  the  horse  is 
capable  of  working  in. 

To  help  his  balance  the  rider  must  never  take  the  slight- 
est assistance  from  the  reins.  Whatever  the  position  of 
the  body,  the  hand  must  be  fixed,  and  the  reins  of  such  a 
length  as  to  feel  and  support  the  horse,  but  never  to  hold 
on. 

To  acquire  the  balance,  the  practice  on  circles,  or  the 
longe,  is  useful ;  working  equally  to  both  hands,  and  not 
using  stirrups  till  the  pupil  has  acquired  the  balance  with- 
out them. 

Experience  proves  that  the  body,  if  in  the  manege  seat 
and  fundamental  position  almost  involuntarily  takes  the 
corresponding  motion,  whether  the  horse  stumbles,  rears, 
springs  forward,  or  kicks. 


THE   REINHOLD. 

There  are  various  methods  of  holding  the  reins,  ac- 
cording to  the  style  of  riding,  the  design  of  the  rider, 
and  the  propensities  of  horses. 

In  holding  the  snaffle-reins  separately,  one  rein  pas- 
ses into  each  hand,  between  the  third  and  fourth  fingers, 
and  out  of  it  over  the  fourth  finger,  where  it  is  held  down 
by  the  thumb.— (Plate  XXXVI.  Figure  1.) 

When  afterwards  further  advanced,  the  reins  are  held 
in  the  left  hand,  as  at  first  taken  up ;  the  left  rein  passing 
under  the  little  finger,  and  the  right  under  the  third  fin- 
ger, both  lying  smooth  through  the  hand,  the  superfluous 


THE      REIN-HOLD.  133 

rein  hanging  over  the  first  joint  of  the  fore  finger,  and 
the  thumb  being  placed  upon  it.*— (Plate  XXXVI.  Fig- 
ure 2). 

Riders  should  not  throw  their  right  shoulders  back,  as 
they  are  apt  to  do,  when  they  first  take  the  reins  in  one 
hand.  The  right  arm  should  hang  by  the  side,  with  the 
hand  by  the  side  of  the  thigh;  or,  if  holding  the  whip,  it 
may  be  kept  a  little  lower  than  the  left,  in  order  not  to  ob- 
struct the  operation  of  the  bridle. 

We  have  already  said,  that  we  think  it  best  to  ride  with 
the  snaflie  alone,  and  to  use  the  curb  only  occasionally. 
In  this  case,  the  curb  reins  may  have  a  slide  upon  them, 
and  may  hang  on  the  pummel  of  the  saddle,  or  the  horse's 
neck. 

When  the  rider,  however,  holds  the  curb  as  well  as  the 
snaffle,  having  both,  as  is  most  usual,  in  the  left  hand, — 
while  the  curb  reins  are  placed  as  above  described  of  the 
snaffle  reins,  the  snaffle  reins  are  placed  within  them; 
that  is,  the  left  snaffle  rein  enters  under  the  second,  and 
the  right  under  the  first  finger,  and  both  pass  up  through 
the  hand,  and  out  of  it,  over  the  forefinger,  precisely  as 
do  the  curb  reins,  except  that  they  lie  at  first  above,  then 
within,"  and  lastly  under  them.— (Plate  XXXVI.  Fig.  4.) 

Shifting  the  reins  should  be  done  expertly,  without 


*  Sometimes,  however,  the  right  rein  is  made  to  enter  the  hand  from 
above  over  the  forefinger,  and  crosses  the  left  rein  in  the  palm,  where 
tlie  fingers  close  upon  them,  a  loop  or  bow  heing  formed  of  the  residue 
between  the  hand  and  body,  whence  it  hangs  down.— (Plate  XXXVi. 
Figures). 


134  RIDING. 

.Stopping  the  horse,  altering  the  pace,  breaking  the  time, 
or  looking  to  the  hands. 

When  the  snaffle  reins  are  held  in  one  hand,  the  me- 
thod of  shifting  from  the  left  hand  is  as  follows  ; 

Turn  the  thumbs  towards  each  other  ;  carry  the  right 
hand  over  the  left ;  in  place  of  the  little  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  put  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  downwards  be- 
tween the  reins ;  lay  the  reins  smoothly  down  through 
the  right  hand,  and  place  the  thumb  upon  the  left  rein  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  joint  of  the  forefinger. — (Plate 
XXXVI.  Figure  5). 

To  shift  them  again  into  the  left  hand,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  left  hand  over  the  right ;  to  put  the  lit- 
tle finger  of  the  left  hand  downward  between  the  right 
and  left  reins  ;  to  place  them  smoothly  upward  through 
the  hand,  and  to  let  the  ends  hang  over  the  forefinger,  as 
at  first.— (Plate  XXXVl.  Figure  6). 

When  both  curb  and  snaffle  reins  are  held  in  the  usual 
method,  we  shift  them  into  the  right  hand  in  a  similar 
manner,  by  turning  the  thumbs  toward  each  other;  car- 
rying the  right  handover  the  left;  putting  the  forefinger 
of  the  right  hand  into  the  place  of  the  little  finger  of  the 
left:  the  second  finger  of  the  right  into  the  place  of  the 
third  finger  of  the  left ;  and  the  third  finger  of  the  right 
into  the  place  of  the  second  finger  of  the  left ;  and  laying 
the  reins  smoothly  down  through  the  right  hand. — (Plate 
XXXVI.  Figure  7). 

When  we  shift  the  reins  again  to  the  left  hand,  we  put 
the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  into  the  places  we  took  them 


i 


THE      REIN-HOLD,  135 

from,  and  turn  the  reins  smoothly  upward  through  the 
hand  and  over  the  forefinger.— (Plate  XXXVI.  Figure 
8). 

Separating  the  reins  is  sometimes  necessary.  When  a 
horse  refuses  obedience  to  one  hand,  we  use  two.  It  is 
seldom,  however,  necessary  to  take  more  than  one  rein  in 
the  right  hand ;  and  this  is  the  right  rein  of  the  snaffle 
onl3'. 

For  this  purpose,  the  rider  turns  the  back  of  his  right 
liand  upwards,  puts  the  first  three  fingers  over  the  snaffle 
rein,  receives  it  between  his  little  and  third  fingers,  lets 
the  superfluous  end  hang  over  the  forefinger,  with  the 
thumb  upwards,  as  he  does  the  bridle  hand. — (Plate 
XXXVI.  Figure  9). 

Adjusting  the  reins,  is  shortening  or  lengthening  them, 
wholly  or  partially,  as  occasion  may  require. 

To  adjust  the  whole,  w^e  take  the  superfluous  reins  that 
hang  over  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  into  the  right 
hand,  so  that  with  that  hand  we  support  the  horse,  and 
feel  every  step  he  takes,  and  we  then  open  the  fingers  of 
the  left  hand  so  as  to  slip  the  hand  up  and  down  the  reins 
smoothly  andj  freely,  and  thereby  adjust  them  to  our 
pleasure. 

To  shorten  the  curb  rein,  and  lengthen  the  snaffle,  we 
take  in  the  right  hand  the  centre  of  the  curb  rein,  that 
hangs  over  the  forefinger,  slip  the  whole  of  the  reins  too 
long,  pass  the  left  hand  down  the  reins,  and  feel  with  the 
fingers  whether  both  the  curb  reins  are  of  equal  lengthy 
before  we  grasp  with  the  left  hand,  or  quit  with  the  right. 

Similarly,  we  shorten  the  snaffle,  and  legthen  the  curb, 
by  taking  in  the  right  hand  the  centre  of  the  snaffle  that 


136  RIDING. 

hangs  over  the  forefinger,  and  proceeding  in  the  same 
way. 

When  any  single  rein  wants  shortening,  we  apply  the 
right  hand  to  that  part  which  hangs  over  the  forefinger, 
and  draw  it  tighter. 

When  the  reins  are  separate,  or  occupy  both  hands, 
and  want  adjusting,  we  bring  the  hands  together  to  assist 
each  other ;  remembering  that  the  inner  hand,  or  that 
which  supports  the  attitude  the  horse  works  in,  is  not  to 
departfrom  its  situation,  so  as  to  occasion  any  disordeij 
but  that  the  outer  hand  is  to  be  brought  to  the  inner,  for 
the  purpose  of  adjusting  them. 


THE     CORRESPONDENXE. 

To  have  a  correct  notion  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
hand  operates  on  the  horse's  mouth,  it  must  be  understood 
that  the  reins,  being  held  as  described,  are  collected  to 
such  definite  length,  that  bracing  the  muscles  of  the  hand 
would  rein  the  horse  back,  and  easing  them  permit  the 
horse  freely  to  advance;  the  hand,  for  preserving  a  me- 
dium effect  on  the  mouth,  being  only  half  shut,  and  the 
knuckles  next  the  wrist  being  nearly  open. 

The  hand,  then,  being  connected  to  the  reins,  the  reins 
to  the  bit,  the  bit  operating  in  the  curb  on  the  bars,  and 
in  the  snaffle  on  the  lips,  the  rider  cannot  move  the  hand 
and  scarcely  even  a  finger,  without  the  horse's  mouth  be- 
ing more  or  less  affected.  This  is  called  the  correspon- 
dence. 

If,  moreover,  the  hand  be  held  steady,  as  the  horse  ad- 
vances in  the  trot,  the  fingers  will  feel,  by  the  contraction 


THE     ACTION,  137 

of  the  reins,  a  slight  tug,  occasioned  by  the  cadence  of 
every  step ;  and  this  tug.  by  means  of  the  correspondence) 
is  reciprocally  felt  in  tlie  horse's  mouth. — This  is  called 
the  APPUY. 

While  this  relation  is  preserved  between  the  hand  and 
mouth,  the  horse  is  in  perfect  obedience  to  the  rider,  and 
the  hand  directs  him,  in  any  position  or  action,  with  such 
ease,  that  the  horse  seems  to  work  by  the  will  of  the  rider, 
rather  than  by  the  power  of  his  hand.— This  is  called  the 

SUPPORT. 

Now,  the  correspondence  or  effective  communication 
between  the  hand  and  mouth, — the  appuy,  or  strength  of 
the  operation  in  the  mouth, — the  support  or  aid,  the  hand 
gives  in  the  position  or  action,— are  always  maintained  in 
the  manege  and  all  united  paces.  Without  these,  a  horse 
is  under  no  immediate  control,  as  in  the  extended  gallop 
or  at  full  speed,  where  it  may  require  a  hundred  yards  to 
pull  before  we  can  stop, 

THE   ACTION. 

The  degree  of  correspondence,  appuy,  and  support,  de- 
pends, in  horses  otherwise  similar,  on  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  hand. 

The  raising  of  the  rider's  hand  increases  his  powerj 
and  this,  raising  the  horse's  head  diminishes  his  power. 
The  depressing  of  the  rider's  hand,  on  the  contrary  dimin- 
ishes his  power ;  and  this,  depressing  the  horse's  head,  in- 
creases his  power. 

On  these  depend  the  unitedness  or  disunitedness  in  the 
action  of  the  horse. 


138  RIDING. 

A  writer  on  this  snbject  (Berenger,  we  believe)  gives 
the  following  useful  illustration. 

If  a  garter  were  placed  across  the  pupil's  forehead,  and 
a  person  behind  him  held  the  two  ends  in  a  horizontal  di- 
rection, the  pupil,  if  he  stood  quite  upright,  could  not  pull 
at  the  person's  hand,  nor  endure  the  person's  hand  to  pull 
at  him,  without  falling  or  running  backwards —  Tliis  is  th  e 
situation  of  a  horse  v:hen  united 

Accordingly,  when  the  pupil  felt  the  hand  severe,  or  ex- 
pected it  to  pull,  he  would  guard  against  it  by  bending  the 
body,  projecting  the  head,  and  planting  one  foot  behind. — 
This  is  the  situation  of  ahorse  when  disunited^  or  defending 
himself  against  the  heaviness  of  the  hand. 

Hence  the  perpetual  pull  of  a  timid  rider,  or  a  heavy  in- 
sensible hand,  cannot  keep  a  horse  united,  because  the 
horse  cannot  then  bear  its  severity.  Hence  heavy  hands 
make  hard-mouthed  horses.  And  hence  it  is  in  this  con- 
dition that  we  generally  find  horses ;  for  the  best  broke  be- 
come so,  if  rode  a  ievf  times  by  an  ignorant  horseman.  In 
such  cases,  the  horse  makes  the  rider  support  the  weight 
both  of  his  head  and  neck,  or  is  on  his  shoulders  and  is  apt 
to  stumble. 

If,  then,  the  appuy  be  heavy,  from  the  head  being  carried 
too  low,  and  the  horse  not  sufficiently  united,  the  rider 
must  raise  the  hand,  and  let  the  fingers,  by  moving,  rather 
invite  than  compel  the  head,  or  more  properly  the  neck,  to 
rise,  for  the  object  is  to  bring  in  the  head  by  raising  the 
neck;  the  legs  at  the  same  time  pressing  the  haunches  un- 
der. By  this  means,  the  horse  will  be  united,  and  the  ap- 
puy will  be  lightened. 


T  H  E      H  A  N  D  .  139 

Should  the  hand,  however,  be  too  confining  to  the  horse 
when  united,  he  may  become  so  balanced  on  his  haunches, 
that  he  can  neither  disunite  himself,  nor  advance  one  step; 
and,  should  the  rider  then  press  him  without  yielding  or 
dropping  the  hand,  he  would  compel  him  to  rear. 

Such  are  the  two  extremes  where  the  horse  is  disunited, 
and  where  he  is  too  much  united.  The  intermediate  effect 
of  the  hand  and  heel  must  be  acquired  by  practice. 


To  a  masterly  hand,  firmness,  gentleness  and  lightness, 
are  very  properly  described  as  being  essentially  necessary. 

Firmness  of  the  hand  does  not,  however,  do  more  than 
correspond  exactly  with  the  feeling  in  the  horse's  mouth, 
unless  the  horse  attempts  to  get  the  ascendancy,  to  abandon 
that  delicate  correspondence  producing  the  appuy  and 
keepinghimunder  the  strictest  obedience,  and  to  make  a 
dull  or  insensible  pull  on  the  hand. 

To  frustrate  these  attempts,  the  hand  is  kept  firm,  and 
the  fingers  braced ;  and  should  the  horse  plant  his  head 
low  to  endure  this,  the  fingers  are  moved,  the  reins  shaken, 
&c.  to  raise  the  head  and  divert  him  from  his  purpose ;  or, 
ifthis  be  unavailing,  the  hand  is  yielded  that  the  reins  may 
become  slack,  and  a  snatch  is  given  in  an  upward  direction, 
which  will  not  only  make  him  raise  his  head,  but  will  deter 
him  from  putting  it  down  again. 

Gentleness  of  the  hand  relaxes  a  little  of  its  firmness, 
and  mitigates  the  feeling  between  the  hand  and  the  horse's 
mouth,  without  passing,  however,  from  one  extreme  to 
another. 


140  RIDING. 

Lightness  of  the  hand  lessens  still  mere  the  feeling  be- 
tween the  riders  hand  and  the  horse's  mouth,  and  consists 
in  a  slight  alternate  feeling  and  easing  of  the  bridle,  regu- 
lated by  the  motion  of  the  horse ;  for,  if  the  appuy  were 
always  in  the  same  degree,  it  would  heat  the  mouth,  dull 
the  feeling,  and  render  the  horse's  bars  callous. 

The  rider  must  also  distinguish  whether  the  horse  wish- 
es to  disengage  himself  from  restriction,  or  wants  a  mo- 
mentary liberty,  to  cough,  to  move  if  cramped,  to  dislodge 
a  fly,  &c. 

The  curb,  if  used,  requires  always  a  light  hand  to  man- 
age it ;  and  the  horse  should  never  be  put  to  do  any  thing 
in  a  curb  at  which  he  is  not  perfectly  ready.  The  curb  is 
adapted  for  acting  in  a  direct  line :  the  snaffle  should  be 
used  in  all  other  cases. 

Still,  as  to  all  these  qualities,  the  transitions  mast  be 
gradual. 

Were  the  rider,  passing  over  that  degree  of  restraint 
which  is  derived  from  the  easy  or  gentle  hand,  to  go  at  once 
from  a  firm  hand  to  a  slack  one,  he  would  deprive  his 
horse  of  the  support  he  trusted  to,  and  precipitate  him  on 
his  shoulders. 

On  the  contrary,  were  he  to  pass  from  the  slack  to  the 
tight  rein  all  at  once,  he  would  give  a  violent  shock  to 
the  horse's  mouth. 

All  the  operations  of  the  hand,  then,  should  be  firm, 
gentle,  and  light ;  and,  in  these,  the  fingers  and  wrists 
alone  must  act. 

Certain  liberties  called  descents  of  the  hand,  are  also 
taken  with  well-bred  horses. 

These  are  made  in  three  difierent  ways :— by  advancing 


THE      HAND.  141 

the  arm  a  little  but  not  the  shoulder,  still  keeping  the  usual 
length  of  rein,  or  by  dropping  the  knuckles  directly  and  at 
once  upon  the  horse's  neck ;  by  taking  the  reins  in  the 
right  hand,  about  four  fingers'  breadth  above  the  left,  and 
letting  them  slide  through  the  left,  dropping  the  right  hand 
at  the  same  time  upon  the  horses  neck ;— and  by  taking 
the  end  of  the  reins  in  the  right  hand,  quitting  them  en- 
tirely with  the  left,  and  letting  the  end  of  them  fall  upon 
the  horse's  neck. 

These  graceful  freedoms  must  never  be  used  but  with 
great  caution,  when  the  horse  is  quite  together,  and  in  the 
hand;  and  the  rider,  by  throwing  back  his  body,  must 
comiterbalance  the  weight  of  the  horse  upon  its  haunches. 


There  are  still  minuter  rules  belonging  to  this  head. 

Both  snaffle  reins  being  in  one  hand,  and  thatin  the  first 
position,— if  we  open  the  first  andsecond  fingers,  we  slack- 
en the  right  rein ,— if  we  open  the  little  finger,  we  slacken 
the  left  rein  ; — if  we  shut  the  hand  entirely,  and  imme- 
diately open  it  again,  we  lessen  the  tension  of  both  reins. 
By  these  methods,  we  may  relieve  and  freshen  the  two  bars 
in  which  the  feeling  and  appuy  resides. 

So  also  in  the  second  descent  of  the  hand.  While  the 
right  hand  holds  the  reins,  we  may  slide  the  left  hand  up 
and  down  these  in  that  degree  of  appuy  which  belongs  to 
the  easy  and  slack  hand;  during  which  the  horse  will  en- 
deavor to  preserve  that  mutual  sensation  between  the 
mouth  and-the  hand,  which  makes  him  submit  with  plea- 
sure to  constraint. 


142 


By  this  play  of  the  rein  and  movement  of  the  bit  to  avoid 
pressure  in  one  continued  way,  the  horse's  head  is  kept 
high,  and  his  neck  and  crest  are  raised. 


THE   GUIDANCE   OR  AIDS. 

The  modes  of  guiding  the  horse  are  called  aids,  because 
they  not  only  direct,  but  assist  the  horse  to  execute.  They 
also  check  him  in  acting  contrarily. 

These  aids  are  certain  positions  of  the  handjbod)'',  legs, 
and  sometimes  of  the  switch  or  whip. 

The  hand  is  so  far  the  principle  of  these,  that  the  others 
are  sometimes  called  accompaniments,  as  only  giving 
power  and  efficacy  to  the  hand. 

Aids  of  the  Hand. 

A  horse  can  move  four  different  ways — forward,  to  the 
right,  to  the  left,  and  backward :  but  he  cannot  perform 
these  motions,  unless  the  hand  of  the  rider  makes  four  cor- 
responding motions. 

There  are  acordingly  five  different  positions  for  the 
hand,  including  that  general  one  from  which  the  other 
four  proceed. 

The  Jive  Positions  when  one  Fein  is  held  in  each  Hand. 

In  the  first  position,  the  reins  pass  up  between  the  third 
and  fourth  fingers  of  each  hand,  their  ends  are  thrown 
over  the  forefingers,  the  thumbs  are  closed  on  them,  and 
the  fingers  are  shut ;— the  hands  being  held,  as  already  de- 
scribed in  treating  of  the  seat. 


THE      GUIDANCE      OR      AID.  143 

The  second  position  consists  of  a  slight  relaxation  of  the 
preceding,  and  permits  the  horse  to  advance. 

The  third  position  shortens  the  right  rein  rather  upward, 
and  turns  the  horse  to  the  right. 

The  fourth  position  shortens  the  left  rein  rather  upward, 
and  turns  the  horse  to  the  left. 

The  Jith position shonens  both  reins,  and  stops  or  reins 
the  horse  backwards. 

The  five  Positions  when  the  Reins  are  held  in  one  Hand, 

The  aids  of  the  hand,  as  forming  these  positions,  when 
the  reins  are  held  in  one  hand,  maybe  very  simply  given 
by  a  little  extending,  or  bending  the  wrist,  to  make  the 
horse  advance,  or  go  backward,— and  by  slightly  carrying 
the  hand  to  the  right,  or  to  the  left,  and  in  bot  h  cases  rath- 
er upward,  to  make  the  horse  turn  in  these  directions.* 


These  aids,  however,  where  the  reins  are  held  in  one 
hand,  are  not  so  effective  as  those  where  the  reins  are 
separate. 

♦the  TWISTINGS   OF  THE  BRIDLE  HAND. 

Here  several  modifications  of  the  rules  already  given  occur. 

We  do  not,  however,  approve  of  these  positions,  as  they  in  a  great 
measure,  reverse  aiid  destroy  the  natural  aids  of  the  hand,  by  leaving  the 
riglit  rein  slack  in  the  turn  to  the  right,  the  left  rein  slack  in  the  turn  to 
the  left,  &c.  Indeed,  they  could  not  possibly  be  obeyed  by  the  horsC' 
were  it  not  that,  on  this  point,  beseems  to  have  more  understanding  than 
his  rider,  and  draws  his  conclusions  as  to  the  latter's  intentions,  not  from 
the  inconsistent  action  of  his  hand,  but  from  the  more  natural  accompany- 
ing aids  of  his  body  and  legs.    Fortunately,  however,  these  twjstings  of 


144  RIDING. 


Aids  of  the  Body. 

To  aid  the  second  position  of  the  hand,  and  cause  the 
horse  to  advance,  the  body  may  be  thrown  a  little  forward^ 
but  not  so  as  to  press  heavily  on  the  horse's  foreparts. 

To  aid  the  third  and  fourth  position  of  the  hand,  a  mere 
turn  of  the  body  is  sufficient.---Thus,  entering  an  angle, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  turn  the  body  imperceptibly  toward 
the  corner,  just  as  if  the  rider  intended  to  go  into  it  him- 
self; his  body  then  turning  to  the  right  or  left,  his  hand 
must  necessarily  turn  likewise,  and  the  legof  the  side  on 
which  he  turns  will  infallibly  press  against  the  horse  and 
aid  him.  In  coming  out  of  a  corner,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  turn  the  body  again,  the  hand  will  follow  it,  and  the 
other  leg  approaching  the  horse,  will  put  his  croupe  into 

the  bridle  hand,  though  always  taught,  are,  we  believe,  rarely  practised ; 
but  wc  think  it  very  discreditable  to  icriters  on  horsemanship,  that, 
till  this  moment,  these  positions  shouldhave  stood  without  their  error  le- 
iHff  pointed  out  by  any  one! 

Wc  give  these  positions  here,  only  in  compliance  with  custom. 

In  ty^G first  position,  the  under  surface  of  the  forearm  and  hand  forms 
a  horizontal  line  from  the  elbow  to  the  joint  of  the  little  finger ;  the  el- 
bow is  lightly  closed  to  the  hips ;  the  wrist  is  rounded  ;  the  knuckles  are 
kept  directly  above  the  neck  of  the  horse,  the  hand  being  at  tliree  inches 
from  the  body  and  as  mucli  from  ihe  pummel  of  the  saddle  ;  the  nails 
arc  turned  towards  the  body,  the  little  finger  being  nearer  to  it  than  the 
others ;  the  reins,  in  entering  the  hand,  are  separated  by  the  little  finger 
and  the  thumb  is  placed  flat  upon  them  as  they  pass  out  over  the  for«- 
finger 

In  thesecond^josifzon,  the  hand  is  yielded  to  the  horse  by  turning 
the  naila  downwards,  so  as  to  cany  the  thumb  nearer  the  body,  an  J 


THE     GUIDANCE    OR    AIDS.  145 

the  corner,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  follow  the 
shoulders,  and  be  upon  the  same  line. — The  same  motion 
01  the  body  is  likewise  necessary  to  turn  entirely  to  th  e 
righl  or  left. 

To  aid  the  fifth  position  of  the  hand,  and  make  the  horse 
go  backward,  the  body  must  be  thrown  gently  back,  and 
the  hand  will  go  with  it. 


Aids  of  the  Legs. 

To  aid  the  second  position  of  the  hand,  and  make  the 
horse  advance,  the  legs  must  be  closed.— Even  when  a 
horse  stands  still,  the  legs  held  near  him  will  keep  him  on 
the  watch,  and  with  the  slightest  upward  motion  of  the 


t!»e  little  finger  further  from  it,  yet  somewhat  obliquely,  for  the  thumb 
passes  nearly  into  the  place  where  the  knuckles  were  in  the  first  posi- 
tion, the  nails  being  now  directly  above  the  horse's  neck.  This  permits 
the  horse  to  advance. 

In  the  third  position,  the  hand,  leaving  the  first,  is  turned  upside 
down,  so  that  the  thumb  is  carried  out  to  the  left,  and  the  little  finger 
brought  into  the  right.  This  carries  the  operation  of  the  reins  nearly 
three  inches  more  to  the  right,  by  which  the  left  reins  press  the  neck,  the 
risht  reins  are  slack,  and  the  horse  is  turned  to  the  right. 

in  the  fourth  position,  the  hand  leaving  the  first,  the  back  is  turned 
upward,  so  that  tlie  little  finger  is  carried  out  to  the  left,  and  the  thumb 
brought  in  to  the  right.  This  carries  the  operation  of  the  reins  to  the 
left,  by  which  the  right  reins  press  the  neck,  the  left  reins  are  slack,  and 
the  horse  is  turned  to  the  left. 

In  the  fifth  posit  on,  quitting  the  first,  the  wrist  is  rounded,  the  nails 
turned  upwards,  and  the  knuckles  towards  the  horse's  neck.  This  stops 
the  horse,  or  compels  him  to  go  backward. 

10 


146  RIDING. 

bridle,  he  will  raise  his  head  and  show  his  forehead  to  ad- 
vantage. 

To  aid  the  third  position  of  the  hand,  and  turn  to  the 
right,  the  right  leg  must  determine  the  croupe  to  the  left, 
and  facilitate  the  action  of  the  shoulder,  which  the  hand 
had  turned  to  the  right. 

To  aid  the  fourth  position  of  the  hand,  and  turn  to 
the  Ze/^,  the  left  leg  must  determine  the  croupe  to  the 
right. 

In  making  a  change  to  the  right,  the  left  leg  confines  the 
croupe,  so  that  it  must  follow  the  shoulders.  In  changing 
again  to  the  left,  the  right  leg  acts  similarly. 

To  aid  the  fifth  position  of  the  hand,  and  stop  the  horse 
while  he  is  held  in,  the  legs  must  be  gently  brought  to  the 
sides. 

The  aids  of  the  legs  have  their  degrees  progressively  in- 
creasing, thus: — the  leg  being  brought  nearer  the  side,  is 
the  lightest ;  placing  the  leg  further  back^  with  the  toe 
turned  out,  is  the  next ;  a  touch  with  the  calf  of  the  legs 
is  the  third  ;  a  stroke  with  it,  having  the  toe  kept  up 
firmly,  that  the  muscles  of  the  leg  may  he  hard,  is  the 
fourth ;  and  the  strongest  is  the  scratch,  which,  when  the 
legs  are  laid  on  hard  without  efiect,  is  given  by  dropping 
the  toe,  when,  if  the  spur  is  properly  placed,  the  rowel 
will  scratch  the  horse's  side,  and  this  is  succeeded  by 
giving  the  spur  sharply. 

Aids  with  the  whip  are  sometimes  used  to  give  greater 
effect  to  the  heel.  These  are  gentle  taps  with  the  whip  on 
the  hind  quarters, and  sometimes  on  the  shoulders. — when 
given  on  the  near  side,  the  hand  is  either  applied  behind 


ANIMATIONS,   SOOTHINGS,    AND   CORRECTIONS,  147 

the  back,  with  the  whip  held  b}'-  the  fingers  like  a  pen, 
the  lash  being  downwards,  or  across  the  bridlehand  be- 
fore, the  whip  being  held  with  the  lash  upwards. 


ANIMATIONS,   SOOTHINGS,   AND   CORRECTIONS. 

Animations  proceed  from  the  hand,  the  leg,  the  whip, 
or  the  tongue. 

Those  of  the  hand  and  of  the  legs  have  been  described 
among  the  aids. 

Animations  of  the  whip  are  mild  taps  to  quicken  the 
horse,  or  if  the  lash  is  upwards,  switching  it  in  the  air. 

The  animations  of  both  legs  and  whip  threaten  pun- 
ishment ;  and  accordingly,  with  sluggish  horses,  both 
spurs  and  whip  may  be  necessary. 

The  animation  of  the  tongue  is  produced  by  placing 
the  tongue  flat  against  the.  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  sud- 
denly displacing  the  posterior  part  of  it  by  drawing  the 
air  laterally  between  it  and  the  palate.  This  noise  is  an- 
imating to  the  horse ;  but,  if  too  much  continued,  or  too 
frequent,  its  effect  is  destroyed. 

SooTmNGs  are  the  reverse  of  animations,  and  are  used 
to  dispel  the  fears  of  horses,  and  to  give  them  confidence. 
The  voice  soothes  by  soft  and  mild  tones ;  the  hand,  by 
gentle  patting,  or  stroking;  the  body  and  legs,  by  relin- 
quishing all  unnecessary  firmness,  and  sitting  easy. 

A  horseman  should  have  perfect  command  of  his  tem- 
per as  well  as  invincible  patience  and  perseverance,  to 
make  the  horse  comprehend  and  perform.  He  must  de- 
mand but  little  the  first  time  ;   he  will  be  more  readily 


1 18  RIDING. 

obeyed  the  next  time  ;  and  he  may  increase  his  demands 
as  the  horse  improves  in  habit  and  temper. 

Corrections  are  given  either  with  the  spurs  or  switch, 
or  by  keeping  the  horse  in  a  greater  degree  of  subjec- 
tion. 

In  all  corrections,  a  good  horseman  endeavors  rather 
to  work  upon  the  mind  than  the  body  of  the  horse.  The 
corrections  which  render  a  horse  most  obedient,  and  yet 
dishearten  him  least,  are  not  severe,  but  rather  oppose 
him  by  restraint,  and  make  him  do  directly  the  contrary. 

If  a  horse  do  not  go  off  readily,  or  if  he  be  sluggish, 
make  him  gosidewise,  sometimes  to  one  hand,  sometimes 
the  other,  then,  drive  him  forward  If  he  go  forward  too 
fast,  moderate  the  aids,  and  make  him  go  backward  more 
or  less  according  to  his  conduct.  If  he  be  disorderly  and 
turbulent,  walk  him  straitforward,  with  head  in  and 
croupe  out, 

AVhen  correction  is  given  with  the  whip,  it  should  be 
with  strength ;  the  lash  being  upwards,  the  arm  lifted 
high,  and  the  whip  applied  behind  the  girths  round  the 
belly ;  or  it  may  be  given  forward,  over  the  shoulders,  be- 
tween the  fore  legs.  Should  the  horse  kick  at  the  appli- 
cation of  the  whip  to  his  flank  or  quarter,  the  rider  must 
instantly  apply  it  smartly,  and  must  repeat  it  more  sharp- 
ly, should  he  kick  at  that.  By  this,  the  horse  may  be 
made  sensible  of  his  fault. 

To  give  a  horse  both  spurs  properly,  the  rider  must 
change  the  posture  of  his  legs,  and  bending  his  knee, 
strike  him  with  them  at  once,  quickly  and  firmly. 
Some  horses  disregard  the  whip,  but  fly  at  the  spurs  5 


T  H  E      W  A  L  K  .  149 

Others  disregard  the  spurs,  and  are  terrified  at  the  whip ; 
the  rider  consequently  will  apply  that  which  is  most  like- 
ly to  produce  the  desired  effect. 

When  however,  the  whip  or  spurs  are  applied  two  or 
three  times  sharply  to  restive  horses  without  efiiect,  the 
rider  must  desist,  and  try  other  methods. 


THE   WALK. 

The  Walk  in  General. 

The  rider  should  not  suffer  the  horse  to  move  till  his 
clothes  are  adjusted,  and  whip  shifted,  when,  collecting 
his  reins,  and  taking  one  in  his  right  hand,  he  must  close 
his  legs,  to  induce  the  horse  to  move  slowly  forward  in  the 
walk.  If  we  wish  to  increase  the  pace,  the  pressure  of 
the  knees  must  be  increased. 

When  the  horse  moves,  the  legs  must  resume  their  for- 
mer position,  the  hands  remain  perfectly  steady,  and  the 
body  yield  to  the  movement  of  the  horse. 

As  to  CHARACTER,  the  Walk  is  the  pace  performed  with  the 
least  exertion ;  only  one  leg  at  a  time  being  off  the  ground, 
and  three  on. 

In  this  pace,  accordingly,  four  distinct  beats  are  marked 
as  each  foot  comes  to  the  ground  in  the  following  order: 
first  the  off  fore  foot,  next  the  near  hind  foot,  then  the 
near  fore  foot,  and  lastly,  the  off  hind  foot.* 

*  The  amble  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  natural  pace  of  the  horse 
as  most  foals,  following  their  dams,  amble  more  or  less  to  keep  up  wit^ 
them.  The  difTerence  between  the  walk  and  the  amble  is,  that  two  legs 
of  a  side  are  raised  in  the  latter  at  the  same  instant. 


150  RIDING. 

The  PERFECTION  of  the  walk  consists  in  its  being  an  an- 
imated quick  step,  measuring  exact  distances,  and  mark- 
ing a  regular  time,  by  putting  the  feet  flat  to  the  ground. 

Its  excellence  depends  on  that  uniting  of  the  horse 
which  supports  his  head  and  raises  his  feet,  without  short- 
ening or  retarding  the  step ;  and  that  animation  which 
quickens  the  step  and  sharpens  the  beats  without  altering 
the  time  or  the  action. 

In  PERFORMANCE,  if  the  rider  do  not  support  the  horse 
sufficiently,  his  head  will  be  low,  and  his  walk  slovenly  : 
if  he  support  him  too  much,  he  will  shorten  his  step  so 
that  he  cannot  walk  freely.  If  the  rider  do  not  animate 
him,  he  will  not  exert  himself:  if  he  animate  him  loo 
much,  he  will  trot. 

If  the  korsd  trot  when  the  rider  designs  him  to  walk,  he 
will  find  either  his  hand  or  the  degree  of  animation  com- 
mimicated  by  the  whip,  tongue,  legs,  or  bracing  of  the 
body  too  high,  and  this  he  must  instantly  modify,  as  well 
as  check  the  horse. 

(Plate  XXXVII.  illustrates  the  AValk.) 

Turns  in  the  Walk. 

Turns  in  general  should  be  made  slowly ;  and  all  the 
aids  should  combine  in  producing  them. 

In  PERFORiMANCE,  the  hand  to  which  we  turn,  or  inner 
hand,  is  to  be  a  little  below  the  outer  one,  and  the  inner 
reign  is  to  be  held  with  double  the  force  of  the  outer  one, 
which  is  to  be  exerted  by  the  little  finger  pulling  gently 
upwards  and  towards  the  body,  while  the  outer  hand  re- 
tains a  steady  hold  of  the  outer  rein. 


T  H  E      W  A  L  K  .  151 

At  the  same  time,  the  legs,  by  a  slight  pressure  with  the 
calves,  must  support  the  horse,  keep  him  up  to  the  bridle, 
make  him  bring  his  haunches  under  him,  and  obey  the 
leading  rein.  The  pressure  of  the  inward  leg  alone 
would  make  the  horse  throw  his  haunches  too  much  out- 
wards. 

All  this  is  to  be  done  in  proportion  to  the  effect  meant 
to  be  produced ;  and  great  precision  and  delicacy  are  re- 
quired in  the  execution. 

Wheels  may  also  be  briefly  noticed  here. 

Ahorse  may  wheel  or  turn  on  his  own  ground,  on  three 
pivots,— on  his  centre,  on  his  fore  feet,  and  on  his  hind 
feet.  In  all  these,  the  hand  directs  all  before  the  horse- 
man, and  the  heel  all  behind  him. 

In  wheeling  on  centres,  the  hand  and  heel  operate  to- 
gether— the  hand  leading  the  shoulder  round — the  leg  di- 
recting the  croupe,  by  which  means,  in  going  about,  the 
fore  feet  describe  one  half  circle,  and  the  hind  feet  an- 
other. 

Here  the  aids  of  the  hand,  body,  and  legs,  must  exactly 
correspond ;  and  the  degree  of  appuy  must  be  merely  such 
as  will  carry  its  aids  into  effect ;  for,  if  the  appuy  is  too 
weak,  the  horse  will  advance  over  his  ground,  and  if  too 
strong,  he  will  retire  from  it. 

On  terminating  the  wheel  or  quarter  circle,  the  about 
or  half  circle,  or  the  about  and  about,  or  whole  circle,  the 
hand,  the  body,  and  leg,  must  instantly  resume  their 
proper  position. 

The  wheel  on  the  fore,  and  that  on  the  hind  feet,  are 
still  more  rarely  of  use  in  common  practice. 


152 


Stops  in  the  Walk. 

Horses  and  horsemen  generally  stop  by  a  gradual  ces- 
sation of  action,  in  a  time  and  distance  which  depend  on 
circumstances. 

As  to  CHARACTER,  howevcr,  the  stop,  when  properly  per- 
formed, is  an  instant  cessation  of  advance,  without  any 
previous  indication. 

When  the  stop  is  properly  performed,  it  shows  the  great 
superiority  of  the  rider's  hand  over  the  horse.  It  conse- 
quently confirms  him  in  obedience,  unites  him,  supples  the 
haunches,  and  bends  the  houghs.  Much  ill,  however, 
may  occur  from  a  too  frequent  or  injudicious  practice  of  it. 

The  PERFECTION  of  the  stop  consists  in  the  action  ceas- 
ing at  the  finish  of  a  cadence,  without  breaking  the  pre- 
vious time ;  and  in  the  horse  being  so  balanced  on  his 
haunches,  and  so  animated,  that,  with  liberty  given,  he 
can  advance  with  the  same  rapidity  as  before. 

In  PERFORMANCE,  the  time  to  be  seized  is  when  the  first 
part  of  the  cadence  is  coming  to  the  ground  ;  so  that  its 
finish  completes  the  stop.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  cadence 
will  be  broken,  and  the  stop  rendered  irregular. 

Such  being  the  time,  the  stop  is  performed  by  the  rider, 
bracing  his  arms  to  his  body,  holding  both  reins  equally 
and  firmly,  drawing  the  fingers  toward  the  body,  closing 
for  an  instant  both  legs,  to  press  the  horse  up  to  the  bridle, 
and  throwing  the  body  back,  with  precisely  such  strength 
of  all  the  muscles  as  is  proportioned  to  the  effect;  all  this 
being  done  at  the  same  instant,  and  making  but  one  motion. 

If  the  rider  do  not  close  his  legs,  the  horse  may  not 


THE      WALK.  153 

bring  his  haunches  under,  the  stop  will  be  on  the  shoul- 
ders, and  its  effect  will  be  destroyed. 


If,  in  stopping,  a  horse  toss  up  his  nose,  or  force  the 
hand,  the  bridle  hand  must  be  kept  low  and  firm,  no  lib- 
erty must  be  given,  his  neck  must  be  pressed  with  the  right 
hand  till  he  has  brought  down  his  nose,  and  immediately 
all  his  bridle  may  be  given  him. 

(Plate  XXXVIII.  illustrates  the  Stop.) 

If  the  horse  has  not  readily  obeyed  in  making  the  stop 
he  should  be  made  to  go  backwards,  as  a  proper  punish- 
ment for  the  fault. 

Going  Backward  in  the  Walk. 

The  action  of  a  horse  when  he  goes  backwards,  is  to 
bend  his  haunches,  to  have  always  one  of  his  hinder  legs 
under  his  belly,  on  which  to  rest  and  balance  himself,  and 
to  push  his  croupe  backward. 

In  PERFORMANCE,  the  horsc's  head  must  be  steady  and 
right,  his  body  must  be  gathered  up  under  him,  he  must 
be  upon  his  haunches,  and  his  feet  must  be  even. 

To  aid  him  in  this,  there  must  be  an  equal  and  steady 
feeling  of  both  reins;  the  hand  must  be  held  centrically, 
and  kept  from  rising,  with  the  knuckles  a  little  down,  in- 
viting the  horse  to  back ;  the  body  must  be  bent  a  little 
forward,  with  the  belly  drawn  in ;  and  the  legs  must  gen- 
tly press  the  sides  of  the  horse,  in  order  to  keep  him  up 
to  the  bridle,  and  to  prevent  him  from  swerving. 

The  instant  the  horse  yields  to  the  hand,  the  body  and 


151 


hand  yield  to  the  horse,  that  he  may  recover  his  balance ; 
and  be  may  then  be  pressed  to  back  again. 

If  either  the  deviation  of  the  hand  from  its  centrical 
situation,  or  any  other  cause,  make  the  croupe  go  off  the 
line  in  an  opposite  direction,  the  heel  must  support  and 
direct  him.  Thus,  should  the  croupe  traverse  to  the  right, 
the  right  leg  must  direct;  and,  to  assist,  the  hand  must  be 
carried  a  little  to  the  right;  but  this  must  be  done  with 
delicacy,  lest  we  throw  the  croupe  too  much  to  the  left. 

Here  the  hand  and  iheheel  change  their  functions :  the 
hand  compels  the  action,  and  the  heel  directs  it. 


The  Trot  in  general. 

As  to  the  CHARACTER  of  the  tror,  when  we  urge  the  horse 
to  proceed  faster  than  he  can  by  moving  one  leg  after  the 
other  in  the  walk,  we  oblige  him  to  take  up  two  at  a  time 
in  the  trot. 

Here  the  off  fore  foot  and  the  near  hind  foot  give  one 
beat ;  and  the  near  fore  foot  and  the  off  hind  foot  give 
another;  so  that  there  are  two  legs  crosswise  off  the 
ground,  and  two  legs  on ;  the  beats  bemg  sharp  and  quick 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  animation  and  extension. 

The  PERFECTION  of  the  trot  consists  in  its  suppleness, 
giving  the  horse  a  free  use  of  his  limbs  ;  in  its  union,  dis- 
tributing his  labor  more  equally,  the  horse's  fore  legs  hav- 
ing more  to  sustain  than  the  hind,  especially  when  he  is 
disunited,  or  on  the  shoulders;  and  in  its  action,  which 
should  be  true  and  equal,  the  liberty  of  the  fore  quarters 


THE     TROT,  155 

not  exceeding  the  hind,  nor  the  hind  the  fore— the  knee 
being  up,  the  haunches  bent,  springy  and  pliant,  the  step 
measuring  exact  distances,  and  marking  a  regular  time. 

lu  the  trot,  there  is  a  leading  foot,  either  right  or  left, 
by  which  the  corresponding  side  is  a  little  more  advanced 
than  the  other. 

This  leading  with  either  foot  is  valuable,  as,  in  horses 
that  have  not  been  thus  suppled,  if  chance  or  fatigue 
make  them  change  their  leg  for  that  which  they  are  not 
accustomed  to,  the  action  is  stiiF,  confined,  and  irregular. 


Kinds  of  Trot. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  trot — the  extended,  the  supple- 
and  the  even.  » 

In  the  EXTENDED  TROT,  the  horse  steps  out  without  re- 
taining himself,  being  quite  straight,  and  going  directly 
forwards. 

In  the  SUPPLE  trot,  the  horse,  at  every  motion,  bends 
and  plays  the  joints  of  his  shoulders,  knees,  and  feet. 

In  the  EVEN  TROT,  the  horse  makes  all  his  limbs  and 
joints  move  so  equally  and  exactly,  that  his  limbs  never 
cover  more  ground  one  than  the  other,  nor  at  one  time 
more  than  at  another. 

These  three  kinds  of  trot  depend  upon  each  other.  We 
cannot  pass  a  horse  to  the  supple  trot  without  havingfirst 
worked  him  to  the  extended  trot ;  and  we  can  never  arrive 
at  the  even  and  equal  trot,  without  having  practised  the 
supple. 

To  pass  from  the  extended  to  the  supple  trot,  the  horse 
must  be  gently  and  by  degrees  held  in. 


156  RIDING. 

When,  by  exercise,  he  has  attained  sufficient  suppleness 
to  manage  his  limbs  readily,  he  must  insensibly  be  held 
in  more  and  more,  till  he  is  led  to  the  equal  trot. 


The  Trot  in  particular. 

In  PERFORMANCE,  the  rider  must  apply,  for  an  instant, 
both  legs  to  his  sides  ;  and  at  the  same  time  raise  the  fore 
hand  by  drawing  the  little  finger  on  each  side  rather  up- 
wards and  towards  the  body,  avoiding  all  jerks  or  sudden 
motions. 

During  the  trot,  the  rider  must  sit  close  to  the  saddle, 
preserving  his  seat  by  the  balance  of  the  body,  and  not  by 
the  pressure  of  the  knees ;  he  must  neither  rise  nor  stand 
in  the  stirrups ;  his  body  must  incline  a  little  backwards  ; 
the  whole  figure  must  partake  of  and  accompany  the  move- 
ments of  the  horse ;  and  he  must  keep  the  hands  up  in 
their  proper  situation,  steady  and  pliant,  preserving  a  due 
correspondence,  and  just  appuy. 

If  the  action  is  too  rapid,  it  must  be  checked  by  strength- 
ening the  hand. 

If  the  action  he  too  slow,  it  nmy  he,  quickened  by  easing 
the  fingers,  and  giving  more  animation. 

To  give  more  animation ,  and  encourage  the  horse  to  put 
his  foot  out  freely,  the  rider  must  support  his  fore  hand 
up,  and  his  haunches  under,  by  a  touch  of  the  fingers,  the 
excitement  of  the  tongue,  the  switch  of  the  whip,  or  the 
application  of  the  legs,  varied  so  as  not  to  lose  their 
effect. 

If  the  action  be  not  sufficiently  united,  that  also  must  be 
corrected. 


T  H  E      T  R  O  T .  157 

To  unite  the  horse,  the  reins  must  be  collected,  and  the 
head  raised.  By  at  the  same  time  bringing  his  haunches 
imder  him,  he  maybe  pressed  up  to  the  bridle  by  the  aid 
of  the  legs ;  care  being  taken  that  this  is  not  done  hastily 
or  violently.  He  must  not,  however,  be  confined  In  the 
hand,  in  expectation  of  raising  him,  and  fixing  his  head  in 
a  proper  place,  as  by  this  means  his  bars  and  mouth  would 
very  soon  grow  callous.  ' 

The  most  certain  sign  of  a  horse's  trotting  well,  is,  that 
when,  in  his  trot,  the  rider  presses  him  a  little,  he  offers 
10  gallop. 

If  the  horse  gallop  when  he  should  not,  the  waist  should 
be  pushed  forwards  toward  the  pummel  of  the  saddle',  and 
a  bend  or  hollow  should  at  the  same  time  be  made  in  the 
loins. 

Turns,  Stops,  etc.  in  the  Trot. 

As  to  TURNS,  seeing  that- the  operations  directed  to  be 
performed  at  the  walk  are  to  be  practised  in  the  trot,  no- 
thing further  need  be  said  of  them. 

As  STOPS  are  required  to  coincide  with  cadences,  it  must 
be  observed,  that  the  first  part  of  the  cadence  in  the  trot  is 
performed  by  the  two  feet  that  lead ;  and  that  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  cadence  is  performed  by  the  iw^o  feet  that  fol- 
low, and  this  should  complete  the  stop. 

The  rider  should  occasionally  alter  the  measure  of  the 
action,  by  strengthening  the  hand,  and  at  the  same  time 
keeping  up  a  sufficient  degree  of  animation  to  prevent  the 
horse  from  stopping.  He  may  then  give  him  liberty,  and 
proceed  with  the  same  spirit  as  before. 


158  RIDING. 

He  may  make  a  stop ;  and  may  even  rein  him  back  two 
or  three  steps ;  in  both  cases  keeping  the  horse  so  united 
and  animated  that  the  instant  the  hand  gives  him  liberty 
he  advances  as  rapidly  as  before. 

(Pkte  XXXIX.  illustrates  the  Trot.) 


ROAD  RIDING. 

Road  riding  is  here  introduced,  because  the  trot  is  its 
most  appropriate  pace. 

The  difference  between  manege  and  road  riding,  consists 
cheifly  in  a  shorter  seat  and  a  shorter  stirrup  being  used 
in  the  latter. 

A  certain  freedom  and  ease  are  also  admissible.  These 
hoAvever,  must  not  exceed  propriety,  neglect  the  horse,  or 
risk  security. 

The  hand  must  keep  its  situation  and  property,  though 
the  body  be  turned  to  any  extreme  for  the  purpose  of  view- 
ing or  conversing  ;  and  the  body  must  not,  by  any  freedom 
it  takes,  throw  itself  out  of  balance,  or  take  liberty  when 
it  cannot  be  done  with  safety. 

When  the  trot  is  extended  to  an  unpleasant  roughness 
it  is  admissible  to  ease  the  jolting  by  rising  upward  and 
slightly  forward  in  the  stirrups. 

The  faster  the  horse  trots,  the  easier  it  is  to  rise  ;  for  it 
is  the  action  of  the  horse,  and  not  anyefFort  of  the  rider, 
that  must  raise  him. 

The  foot  the  horse  leads  with  determines  the  one  the 
rider  must  rise  to  ;  and,  if  the  horse  change  his  foot,  he 
must  change  with  him.  He  must  accordingly  rise  and  fall 


ROAD      RIDING.  159 

with  the  leading  foot,  rising  when  the  leading  foot  is  in  the 
ur,  and  falling  when  it  comes  to  the  ground. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  body  are  to  be  smooth,  and  as 
legular  as  the  beats  of  the  feet. 

Though  this  is  called  rising  in  the  stirrups,  no'  great 
stress  or  dependence  is  to  be  put  on  them.  Such  improper 
use  of  the  stirrups  causes  many  persons  to  be  thrown,  by 
the  horse  shying  or  suddenly  turning  round. 

The  rising  of  the  body  must  not  be  accompanied  by  any 
motion  of  the  arms,  or  lifting  of  the  shoulders. 

The  hand  must  be  held  steady  as  well  as  low.  to  prevent 
galloping  (which  the  forwardness  of  the  haunches  would 
render  inevitable  if  the  hand  were  either  eased  or  lifted), 
and  the  reins  of  that  precise  length  which  preserves  as 
much  correspondence  as  possible  between  the  hand  and 
mouth.  The  steadiness  ofthe  hand  is  also  necessary  for 
the  support  of  the  horse. 

The  slight  inclination  of  the  body  must  not  occasion  any 
roundness  in  the  back,  which  is  invariably  to  be  hollow 
not  only  for  seemliness,but  for  safety. 

The  action  of  the  body  likewise  must  not  cause  the  legs 
to  move  or  press  the  horse,  which  might  cause  him  to 
gallop. 

In  trotting,  the  rider  must  pay  the  greatest  attention  to 
correct  every  propensity  to  lift,  hitch,  over-rate,  or  gallop ; 
and  whenever  he  feels  these  propensities,  he  must  check 
tiiem  with  the  greatest  nicety,  inprder  not  to  retard  the 
horse's  speed. 

(Plate  XL.  illustrates  the  Seat,  «fec.  in  road  riding.*) 

•  In  road  riding,  the  rule  of  taking  Uie  right  hand  of  all  you  pass  is  well 


160  R I D 1 N  a  . 


THE   GALLOP. 


The  Gallop  in  general,  and  its  Kinds, 

As  to  the  CHARACTER  of  the  gallop,  when  we  press  a  horse 
in  the  trot  beyond  his  capacity,  or  animate  him  with  the 
legs  while  we  raise  or  retain  him  with  the  hand,  we  com- 
pel him  to  lift  his  two  fore  feet  after  each  other,  which 
commences  the  gallop. 

Here,  the  near  fore  foot  is  first  raised  from  the  ground  j 
then  the  ofi"  fore  foot,  which  however  passes  the  other,  and 
they  come  to  the  ground  in  the  same  order,  the  near  fore 
foot  making  one  beat,  and  the  off" fore  foot  another,  that 
being  the  most  advanced  or  leading  foot.  The  hind  feet 
follow  in  the  same  manner ;  the  near  hind  foot  marking 
a  third  beat,  and  the  off  hind  foot  passing  forward,  and 
marking  a  fourth  beat.  Thus,  when  this  pace  is  united 
and  true,  the  feet  mark  a  regular,  sharp,  and  quick  time 
of  one,  two,  three,  four. 

known ;  but  there  are  some  exceptions,  which  are  noticed  by  Mr.  Bun- 
bury,  as  follows,  in  his  ironical  style : 

'  In  riding  the  road,  should  a  man  on  horseback  be  on  the  road,  and 
leading  another  horse,  always  dash  by  the  led  one ;  you  might  otherwise 
set  the  man's  horse  capering,  and  perhaps  throw  him  off;  and  you  can 
get  but  a  kick  or  two  by  observing  my  instructions.— In  passing  a  wag- 
gon, or  any  tremendous  equipage,  should  it  nui  pretty  near  a  bank,  and 
there  be  but  a  ditch,  and  an  open  countiy  on  the  other  side,  if  you  are  on 
business,  and  in  a  hurry,  dash  up  the  bank  without  hesitation ;  for  should 
you  take  the  other  sidQ,  and  the  horse  shy  at  the  carriage,  you  may  be 
carried  many  hundred  yards  out  of  your  road ;  whereas,  by  a  little  effort, 
of  courage,  you  need  only  graze  the  wheel,  fly  up  the  bank,  and  by  slip, 
ping  or  tumbling  down  into  the  road  again,  go  little  or  nothing  out  of 
your  way.' 


T  H  E      G  A  L  L  O  P  ,  161 

The  pe:?fection  of  the  gallop  consists  in  the  suppleness 
of  the  limbs,  the  union  pf  the  horse,  the  justness  of  the  ac- 
lion,  and  the  regularity  of  the  time. 

The  gallop  is  of  three  KiNDs---that  of  the  racer,  that  of 
the  hunter,  and  that  of  the  pleasure  horse,  commonly  cal- 
led the  canter.  The  last  of  these  is  by  far  the  most  diffi- 
cult, as  it  requires  skill  to  foreshorten  and  throw  the  horse 
on  his  haunches. 

In  the  gallop,  as  in  the  trot,  there  is  a  leading  foot. 

In  galloping  on  a  straight  line,  it  is  immaterial  with 
which  fore  leg  the  horse  leads,  provided  the  hind  Ipg  of 
the  same  side  follows  the  fore  leg.  But  to  lead  always 
with  the  same  leg  is  injurious. 

In  galloping  to  the  right,  the  horse  must  lead  with  the 
inward  or  off  fore  leg,  followed  by  the  off  hind  leg.  This 
action  is  termed  true  or  united.— [Plate  XLL*  shews  this 
in  the  Canter.) 

In  galloping  to  the  left,  the  horse  must  lead  with  the  in- 
ward or  near  fore  leg,  followed  by  the  near  hind  leg. 
This  also  is  termed  true  orunited.T 

*  In  galloping  to  the  right,  if  the  horse  leaa  with  the  off  fore  leg  and 
noar  hind  leg,  or  if  he  lead  with  the  near  fore  leg  and  off  hind  leg,  he  is 
said  to  be  uisunited. 

If  in  galloping  to  the  right,  he  lead  with  both  near  legs,  he  is  said  to 
lie  false. 

+  In  galloping  to  the  left,  if  the  horse  lead  with  the  near  fore  leg  and 
off  hind  leg,  or  if  he  lead  with  the  off  fore  leg  and  near  hind  leg,  he  is 
said  to  be  disunited. 

If.  in  galloping  to  the  left,  he  lead  with  both  off  legs ,  he  is  said  to 

VilSti. 

II 


162  RIDING, 


The  Canter  in  particidar. 

As  to  PERFORMANCE,  top7it  tkc  hoTse  to  the  cantcr  from  rest 
at  any  spot,  or  from  any  pace,  he  must  be  pressed  with  the 
legs,  or  animated  with  the  tongue,  and  at  the  same  time, 
by  a  motion  of  the  fingers,  and  a  little  raising  of  the  hand, 
he  must  be  invited  to  raise  the  fore  legs. 

If  he  do  not  obey  this,  the  animation  must  be  increased, 
and  the  hand  kept  more  firm,  to  pre  vent  his  trotting ;  and 
this  will  constrain  him  lo  raise  his  fore  legs  together, 

\t  is  3\soxiece^s^\\  to  direct  the  foot  he  is  to  lead  with. 
That  of  course  is  the  inner,  which  he  will  readily  take  by 
putting  the  croupe  in,  by  means  of  the  opposite  thigh, 
thereby  enabling  him  to  advance  the  inner  side. 

As  the  position  of  the  horse  renders  necessary  a  corre- 
sponding position  of  the  horseman,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  whichever  side  the  horse  leads  with,  the  rider's  thigh 
on  that  side  must  be  rather  more  turned  in  towards  the 
saddle,  and  the  hip  on  that  side  more  brought  forward,  and 
consequently  that  the  other  thigh  must  be  a  little  turned 
outward, and  the  hip  brought  backward;  and  all  this 
more  or  less  in  proportion  to  the  position  of  the  horse. 
This  is  the  foundation  of  the  aid  we  have  just  described. 

This  turn  of  the  hip  effects  a  turn  of  the  body.  The 
hands  are  carried  with  the  body ,  and  at  the  same  time  kepli 
up,  rather  above  than  below  the  elbow,  and  quite  steady] 
that  the  cadence  of  every  step,  and  the  support  given  bj 
the  hand,  may  be  felt. 

The  rider's  head  is  of  course  to  be  directed  to  the  horse' 


THE      GALLOP.  1G3 

nose,  his  eye  glancing  on  the  ground  the  horse's  fore  feet 
go  over. 

If  the  horse  strike  off  with  the  wrong  leg,  false  or  disunited, 
the  rider,  at  the  first  corner,  must  endeavor,  by  an  addi- 
tional feeling  of  the  inward  rein,  and  application  of  the 
outward  leg,  to  make  him  change,  and  lead  with  the  prop- 
er leg. 

When  the  horse  leads  with  the  proper  leg,  the  hand 
must  resume  its  usual  position,  the  rider  bending  the  horse 
a  little  inwards  by  shortening  the  inward  rein;  and  the 
fingers  must  be  softened,  if  necessary,  to  let  the  horse  ad- 
vance ;  but  the  hand  must  be  kept  up,  and  every  cadence 
felt  of  the  fore  feet  coming  to  the  ground. 

There  is  far  the  more  skill  displayed  in  keeping  uji  an 
animated  action  in  the  canter,  at  the  rate  of  three  miks 
an  hour,  than  in  the  gallop,  at  that  of  twelve  or  fifteen. 

If  the  animation  fail,  or  the  action  be  not  supported  by 
the  hand,  the  horse  will  break  into  the  trot,  particularly 
as  the  gallop  is  shortened  or  united. 

If  the  action  is  felt  to  be  dxclining,  it  must  be  corrected 
instantly,  by  an  animating  touch  of  the  fingers,  the  leg,  or 
the  tongue.  The  hand  first  discovers  this  declension,  and 
is  the  first  to  correct  it. 


AVhen  the  rider  can  put  his  horse  off  to  either  hand  with 
the  proper  leg,  and  support  the  action,  he  must  particular- 
ly attend  to  its  truth  and  union,  and  try  to  raise  it  to  the 
highest  animation,  riding  sometimes  rapidly,  sometimes 
slowly,  yet  always  united. 


164  R  I  D  I  N  G . 

When  the  gallop  is  disunited  and  extended  to  speed, 
even  though  the  horse  is  supple  andjust  on  his  legs,  it  loses 
its  harmony  and  regularity  of  time.  The  fore  legs  then 
measure  less  space  from  each  other,  and  so  do  the  hind 
legs,  which  makes  the  beats  quicker  in  each,  and  leaves  a 
space  between  the  beats  of  the  lore  legs  and  the  beats  of 
the  hind. 

In  these  gallops,  it  would  be  highly  imprudent  to  circle 
or  turn,  but  on  a  very  large  scale. 

Tunis,  Changes,  Stops,  etcAn  the  Gallop. 

In  TURNING  the  horse  to  the  right  and  left,  at  a  canter, 
the  horse's  fore  hand  must  be  raised  with  the  leading  rein 
and  the  haunches  pressed  forward  and  under  him :  at  the 
same  time,  the  outward  rein  must  assist  to  steady  the 
horse,  and  a  pressure  of  the  calf  of  the  outward  leg  must 
keep  the  haunches  from  falling  to  much  out. 

If  the  horse  is  turned  suddenly  with  the  inward   rein 
only  Avithout  lifting  the  fore  hand,  or  applying  the  outwardj 
leg,  the  horse  must  turn  on  his  shoulders,  lose  power  t( 
halt  on  his  haunches,  and  being  twisted  round  unpreparedj 
will  change  to  the  outer  leg. 

In  CHANGING,  the  operation  must  be  performed  smoothly] 
and  evenly  at  the  same  instant ;  so  that,  at  the  finish  of  j 
the  cadence,  the  body,  hands,  thighs,  and  legs  of  the  rider] 
are  reversed,  for  the  horse  to  commence  his  next  cadence 
with  the  contrary  leg. 

In  STOPPING  in  the  gallop,  the  rider  must  seize  the  time  J 
when  the  horse's  fore  feet  are  coming  to  the  ground,  which 
is  the  beginning  of  the  cadence;  and  he  must  take  care 


THE    GALLOP.  1G5 

that  the  hind  feet  coming  up  to  their  exact  distance,  and 
finishing  the  cadence,  complete  the  stop .-  leaving  the  horse 
so  balanced  that  he  can  readily  set  off  again  with  the  same 
rapidity  as  before. 

Besides  seizing  the  exact  time,  a  due  degree  of  power 
must  thus  be  exerted,  conformably  to  the  readiness,  obe- 
dience, union,  or  rapidity  of  the  action;  for,  should  the 
power  be  deficient,  the  stop  would  not  be  properly  effected 
and  if  it  be  excessive,  the  horse  will  be  overbalanced  on 
his  haunches,  and  compelled  consequently  to  move  his  feet 
after  the  cadence  is  finished. 

Till  horses  are  ready  and  obedient  to  the  stop,  it  should 
not  be  attemptedin  violent  and  rapid  gallops ;  nor  even 
tlien  if  the  horse  is  weak,  or  the  lider  heavy. — In  these 
cases,  the  double  arret  is  used. 

The  Double  Arret  is  the  stop  completed  in  two  cadences 
of  the  gallop,  which  is  far  less  distressing  both  to  man  and 
horse. 

The  body  being  gently  throwTi  back,  will  not  make  the 
action  instantaneously  cease ;  but  the  obedience  of  the 
horse  makes  the  effort  which  checks  half  his  career  in  the 
first  cadence ;  and,  the  body  still  being  kept  back,  he  com- 
pletes it  in  the  second. 

The  horse,  however,  till  practised  and  made  obedient  to 
the  stop,  will  not  easily  perform  the  double  arret;  for,  in 
the  first  instance,  he  must  be  taught  to  stop  by  compulsion ; 
and  it  is  only  when  practice  has  brought  him  to  obedience, 
that  he  readily  stops  at  the  easy  throwing  back  of  the 
body. 


166  RIDING. 

The  half  slop  is  a  pause  in  the  gallop,  or  the  action  sus- 
pended forhalf  a  second,  and  then  resumed  again. 

Here  the  body  is  thrown  back  less  determinately,  lest 
we  should  so  overbalance  the  horse  that  he  cannot  readily 
set  ofFagain  after  the  finish  of  the  cadence,  which  no  sooner 
occurs  than  the  body  is  brought  forward,  to  permit  the 
action  to  go  on. 

Thus  the  half  stop  is  only  a  pause  in  the  gallop,  and  it 
is  mostly  used  to  effect  a  change  from  the  right  leg  to  the 
left,  or  the  opposite. 

The  cadence  of  the  stop  should  be  no  shorter  than  the 
readiness  and  obedience  of  the  horse  will  admit ;  the  half 
stop  not  quite  so  short ;  and  the  two  arrets  still  more 
moderate. 


Leaping  in  general; 

The  moveable  bar  for  leaping  should  be  ten  feet  in 
length,  which  will  admit  of  two  horses  leaping  abreast ; 
should  at  first  be  from  one  to  two  feet  high ;  and  should 
never  be  very  high. 

As  to  the  SEAT,  it  should  be  again  observed,  that  stirrups 
are  no  security  to  the  seat  in  any  situation  on  horseback ;  an(l 
those  who  cannot  forbear  pressing  a  weight  in  them,  had 
better  have  none  when  learning  to  leap. 

An  accurate  balance  must  prevent  all  disturbance  of  the 
seat ;  for  the  slightest,  whether  the  rider  is  thrown  up 
from  the  saddle,  or  his  body  falls  forward,  or  he  gets  out 


LEAPING.  167 

of  balance,  is  as  disgraceful  as  falling  to  the  ground. 
He  should  sit  so  close  as  to  carry  a  shilling  under  each 
thigh  just  above  the  knee,  one  in  each  stirrup  under  the 
toe,  and  one  under  his  breech. 

When  any  action  of  the  horse  tends  to  lift  the  rider  from 
the  saddle^  stirrups  cannot  keep  him  down.  Bearing 
in  the  stirrup,  indeed,  must  lift  the  rider  from  his  saddle, 
and  would  even  loosen  an}^  hold  he  might  take  with  the 
thighs  or  legs. 

Nothing  but  the  weight  of  the  body  can  press  to  the 
saddle.  •  When  the  action  is  violent,  however,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  thighs  may  be  employed  to  hold  it  down  ;  and 
when  the  hold  of  the  thighs  is  not  sufficient,  the  legs  may 
take  a  deeper  and  stronger  hold. 

Leaps  are  standing  or  flying;  the  first  being  most  diffi- 
cult to  sit,  though  always  practised  first,  because  the  slow 
and  steady  leaping  of  a  properly  broke  horse  gives  the 
rider  time  and  recollection,  and  the  riding-master  an  op- 
portunity to  direct,  and  to  prevent  accidents. 


Standing  Leap. 

In  the  standing  leap,  the  horse  first  shortens,  and  then 
extends  himself  Readiness  in  the  band  of  the  rider  is 
therefore  requisite,  to  give  the  appropriate  aids.  These, 
if  well  timed,  assist  the  horse;  if  otherwise,  they  check 
or  embarrass  him,  and  endanger  both  the  animal  and  his 
rider.    (Plates  XLIT.  and  XLIIL  illustrate  the  Leap). 

In  the  PERFORMANCE  of  this,  the  rider  must,  therefore, 
by  a  ready  and  fearless  yielding  of  the  bridle,  leave  the 
horse  at  liberty  to  extend  himself,  preserving  his  own  equi- 


168  RIDING. 

librium  only  by  leaning  fonvard,  as  the  horse  rises,  and 
backward  as  he  alights. 

When  the  horse  is  brought  to  the  bar,  the  body  is  to 
be  upright.  The  legs  are  to  be  applied  to  the  horse's  side 
with  such  firmness  as  to  keep  the  rider  down  to  the  saddle^  and 
in  such  a  manner,  viz.  perpendicularly  from  the  knee, 
that  the  action  of  the  body  shall  not  loosen  or  disturb 
them.  The  toes  must  be  pulled  up,  to  make  the  muscles 
firm,  and  to  prevent  the  spur  from  approaching  too  near 
the  horse  ;  and  if  necessary,  they  may  be  turned  out  a 
little  to  strengthen  the  hold.  The  hand  mustbe  kept  in  the 
centre,  and  quite  loic ;  and  the  reins  not  too  short,  hut  just  by 
the  pressure  of  the  fingers  to  feel  the  horse's  mouth. 

When  at  the  bar,  the  pressure  of  the  legs  and  fingers 
will  invite  the  horse  to  rise ;  and  as  he  rises,  the  body  comes 
fonvard  and  preserves  its  perpendicular.  The  back  must 
then  be  kept  in,  and  the  head  firm. 

As  the  horse  springs  from  his  hind  legs,  and  proceeds 
in  the  leap,  the  rider  must  slip  his  buttock  under  him,  and  let 
his  body  go  freely  back,  keeping  his  hands  down,  legs  close 
and  body  back,  till  the  horse's  hind  legs  have  come  to  the 
ground. 

The  propriety  of  apphingthe  legs  to  hold  firm  in  the 
saddle  is  obvious.  The  hand  being  kept  low  is  essential ; 
and  the  bad  consequences  of  raising  it  are  numerous,  as 
confiningthehorse,preventing  the  body  going  back,  throw- 
ing the  rider  forward,  &c. 

The  body  coming  forward  to  preserve  its  perpendicu- 
lar as  the  horse  rises  before  prevents  the  weight  of  the 
rider  from  hanging  on  his  mouth,  and  checking  his  leap,  if 


LEAPING.  169 

not  pulling  him  over  backwards.  The  back  being  hollow 
when  the  horse  springs  forward,  the  body  will,  of  itself, 
fall  backward  if  the  hand  be  not  raised  to  prevent  it ;  and 
the  head  being  hrm  may  prevent  a  wrench  of  the  neck,  or 
a  bite  of  the  tongue. 

Slipping  the  breech  under  gives  the  body  more  liberty 
to  lean  back,  and  prevents  the  shock  of  the  horse's  feet 
meeting  the  ground,  from  throwing  it  forward. 

While  the  seat  is  thus  maintained,  the  hand  must  not  be 
neglected.  In  riding  up  to  a  leap,  the  rider  must  yield  the 
bridle  lo  the  horse,  guiding  him  straight  to  the  bar  at  an 
animated  pace ;  halt  him  with  a  light  hand,  and  upon  his 
haunches ;  when  he  rises,  only  feel  the  reins  to  prevent 
their  becoming  slack ;  when  he  springs  forward,  yield  the 
hand  without  reserve  ,  and  when  his  hind  leet  come  to 
the  ground,  again  collect  his  horse,  resume  his  usual  po- 
sition, and  move  on  at  the  former  pace. 

If  the  horse  be  too  much  collected  previous  to  his  leap, 
he  will  bound,  or  buck  over,  as  it  is  called.  If  not  suffi- 
ciently collected  or  animated,  he  will  probably  not  clear 
the  leap.  The  degree  in  which  a  horse  should  be  collect- 
ed and  animated,  depends  on  the  temperament  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  rider. 


Flying  Leap. 

The  Flying  Leap  is  distinguished  from  the  standing 
leap  by  its  being  made  from  any  pace  without  a  previous 
halt;  and,  although  the  action  is  quicker,  it  is  much 
easier. 

The  PACE,  however,  at  which  the  rider  goes  at  a  flying 


170  RIDING. 

leap,  should  always  be  moderate,  in  order  that  the  horse 
may  not  rise  too  soon  or  too  late. 

A  horse  which  rises  too  far  from  the  bar  seldom  clears 
his  leap,  and  risks  straining  by  the  effort  to  cover  it;  a 
horse,  which  rises  too  near  the  bar,  is  likely  to  strike  his 
knees  against  it,  and  throw  his  rider  or  hurt  himself. 

If  a  horse  be  indolent  and  require  animation,  it  is  better 
to  rouse  his  apathy  by  the  spur  just  before  his  head  is 
turned  toward  the  leap,  than  while  he  is  running  at  it.  If 
a  horse  leap  willingly,  let  him  take  his  own  pace  to  it,  and 
he  will  spring  from  his  proper  distance,  and  give  himself 
due  velocity. 

Twelve  yards  from  the  leap,  the  rider  may  turn  his 
horse  to  it  in  a  trot ;  the  horse  will  strike  into  a  gallop  > 
and,  by  a  stroke  or  two  before  he  springs,  he  will  increase 
his  velocity,  if  he  perceive  that  the  height  he  has  to  cover 
requires  that  exertion. 

The  sEATin  the  %ing  leapis  exactly  the  same  as  in 
the  standing  one ;  but  as  the  horse  keeps  a  more  horizon- 
tal position,  it  is  easier. 

The  rider,  however,  must  not  bring  his  body  forward 
at  the  raising  of  the  fore  legs,  because  the  spring  from  the 
hind  legs  immediately  follows,  and  the  body  not  only 
might  not  get  back  in  time,  but,  if  the  horse  did  not  come 
fair,  or  refused  to  take  his  leap,  and  checked  himself,  the 
body,  if  forward,  might  cause  the  rider  to  tumble  over 
his  head. 

The  rider  must  therefore  keep  his  body  upright;  take 
hold  with  his  legs;  keep  his  hand  down;  and,  as  the 
horse  springs  forward,  his  body  is  sure  to  take  the  corres- 
ponding action  of  leaning  back,  particularly  if  he,  at  the 


LEAPING.  171 

instant,  slip  his  breech  under  him,  and  bring  his  waist 
forward  with  an  exertion  proportioned  to  the  spring  the 
horse  makes. 

He  must  also  take  care  not  to  bring  his  body  upright, 
nor  slacken  the  hold  with  his  legs,  till  after  the  hind  feet 
have  come  to  the  ground. 

In  this  leap,  the  horse  requires  but  little  support  or  as- 
sistance from  the  hand  till  he  is  coming  to  the  ground, 
when  the  support  of  the  hand  aids  in  bringing  the  body 
upright ;  the  assisting  and  lifting  a  horse  over  leaps  may 
be  done  only  by  old  practitioners,  and  even  by  them  only 
when  the  horse  leaps  freely  and  determinedly. 

Whips  should  not  be  used  when  the  rider  first  practises 
leaping. 


CRITICAL   SITUATIONS. 

When  a  horse  is  addicted  to  stumbling,  rearing,  kick- 
ing, and  bolting,  plunging,  shying,  and  restiveness,  the 
seat  is  maintained  as  in  leaps ;  and  the  arms  are  held 
firm  to  the  body,  the  hands  kept  up,  and  the  reins  separate 
and  rather  short  than  otherwise.  By  this  means,  the 
horse's  head  being  raised,  he  can  with  less  ease  either 
rear  or  kick,  because,  for  such  purposes,  he  must  have 
his  head  at  liberty.  It  is  fortunate  that  horses  which 
rear  high  seldom  kick,  and  vice  versa. 

On  these  occasions,  the  first  operation  of  the  rider  is  to 
separate  the  reins,  &c. 

The  body  must  be  kept  upright  but  flexible,  to  repel 
every  etfort  the  horse  may  make.    The  balance  must  be 


172  RIDING. 

preserved  by  the  muscles  of  the  thighs.  The  legs  are  to 
be  kept  near  the  horse,  but  not  to  grasp  till  absolutely  ne- 
cessary. 

When  he  lifts  his  fore  legs,  the  breech  must  be  thrust 
out  behind,  by  which  the  rider  is  prepared  if  he  rears. 

As  the  fore  feet  come  to  the  ground,  the  breech  must  be 
slipped  under,  which  prepares  for  his  kicking  or  spring- 
ing forward ;  the  legs  being  then  in  a  situation  to  grasp, 
and  the  hands  to  keep     firm  hold. 

In  all  displays  of  viciousness,  the  rider  should  first  see 
that  the  saddle  or  girths  do  not  pinch  the  horse,  that  the 
bit  does  not  hurt  his  lips  by  being  too  high  in  his  mouth, 

ifeC. 


Stuynbling. 

By  the  rider  pressing  his  legs  to  the  horse's  flanks,  and 
keeping  up  his  head,  he  may  be  made  to  go  light  on  his 
forelegs;  and  the  same  should  be  done  if  he  actually 
stumble,  so  as  to  afford  him  instant  assistance. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  bridle  should  be  of  such 
length  in  the  hand,  that,  in  case  of  stumbling,  the  rider 
may  thus  be  able  to  raise  the  horse's  head  by  the  strength 
of  his  arms  and  the  weight  of  his  body  thrown  backward. 
If  the  rein  be  too  long,  it  is  evident  that  in  effecting  this 
manoeuvre,  the  rider  is  in  danger  of  falling  backward  as 
the  horse  rises. 

By  thus  pressing  the  legs  to  the  horse's  sides,  he  may 
be  made  to  keep  his  haunches  under  him  in  going  down 
hill,  or  may  be  helped  on  the  side  of  a  bank. 


CRITICAL      SITUATIONS.  173 


Rearing 


This  is  the  most  dangerous,  as  it  risks  his  falling  back- 
wards. 

When  a  horse  rises  straight  up,  the  rider  must  throw 
his  body  forward,  giving  him  al  1  the  bridle.  The  weight 
of  the  body  will  oblige  him  to  come  down  ;  and  the 
moment  that  his  fore  feet  are  near  the  ground,  and  before 
he  touches  it,  both  the  spurs  must  be  given  him  as  firmly 
and  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Another  mode  of  subduing  him  is,  whenever  the  rider 
is  aware  of  the  horse's  disposition  to  rear,  to  have  the  reins 
separated ;  and  the  instant  he  perceives  him  going  to  rise, 
to  slack  one  hand  and  bend  him  with  the  other,  keeping 
the  hand  low.  This  compels  him  to  move  a  hind  leg,  and 
being  thrown  off  his  balance  ,  he  necessarily  comes  down 
with  his  fore  feet.  He  should  then  be  twisted  round  two 
or  three  times,  to  convince  him  of  the  rider's  superiority 
which  confuses,  baffles,  and  deters  him  from  rearingto  any 
dangerous  height. 

To  break  horses  of  this  dangerous  vice,  it  has  been 
sometimes  expedient  to  leap  from  the  horse,  and  pull  him 
backwards.  This  so  frightens  a  horse,  that  he  is  wary  of 
giving  the  opportunity  of  using  him  so  agam.  It  is,  how- 
ever, an  expedient  to  be  attempted  only  at  a  particular 
crisis,  and  hj  persons  perfectly  collected,  active,  and 
ao:ile.* 


*  On  this  subject,  an  anonymous  writer,  in  answer  to  a  query, 
says,  '  I  would  advise  you  by  no  means  to  try  the  experiment  in 
question,    either    as  operator   yourself,  or  on   your  own  horse.    AX 


174  RIDING. 


Kicking. 


Horses  subject  to  kick,  either  when  they  go  forward,  or 
stand  still,  must  be  kept  much  together^  or  held-in  closely. 

When  this  is  attempted,  the  hands,  though  fixed,  must 
not  pull  at  the  horse,  if  he  do  not  attempt  to  force  the 
hand,  and  get  his  head,  but  must  leave  him  at  liberty  to 
go  forward. 

If,  however,  he  attempt  to  get  his  head  down,  which 
would  enable  him  to  kick  with  such  violence  as  to  throw 
himself,  he  may  have  the  head  confined  up.  This  disarms 
him,  and  he  makes  a  bolt  from  all-fours. 


all  events,pray  make  trial  first  of  the  following  prescription,  which 
will  in  most  cases  be  found  an  excellent  preventive,  if  not  a  total 
cure  of  the  propensity  complained  of,  and  which  has  the  advantage 
over  the  method  respecting  which  you  inquire,  of  being  much  easier 
and  safer  in  its  application,  and,  I  may  perhaps  add,  surer  in  its 
effects,  and  less  expensive  on  the  whole. 

'  Get  a  strong  thick  curb  bit,  with  a  good  deep  port  reversed— that  is, 
the  curve  of  the  mouth-piece  must  project  towards  the  outside  of  the 
horse's  mouth,  and  not  inwardly  towards  his  throat,  as  in  the  common 
port  bit.  The  thickn  ^ss  and  exact  curve  of  the  bit  should  be  calculated 
according  to  the  size,  strength,  and  hardness  of  mouth  of  the  animal  for 
which  it  is  intended.  For  a  very  hard-mouthed  horse,  the  bit  should  be 
made  with  a  very  deey  port,  and  as  thin  as  possible,  consistently  with  the 
strength  requisite. 

'  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  I  have  found  that  confirmed  rearers  are 
tender-mouthed,  and  the  habit  has  been  probably  induced  by  their  being 
bitted  and  handled  too  severely.  A  martingale  will  be  found  a  useful 
addition  to  the  bit  I  have  described.  Its  full  efficacy  can  only  be  suffi- 
ciently appreciated  by  its  being  used  several  times,  till  the  horse  has  be- 
eome  in  some  degree  accustomed  to  it,' 


CRITICAL      SITUATIONS.  175 

When  a  horse  kicks,  the  rider  must  throw  the  body 
backward. 

It  is  an  effective  punishment  to  twist  a  horse  round  a 
few  times  for  this  fault.  If  this  is  done  toward  his  weak 
or  unprepared  side,  for  every  horse  has  a  favorite  side, 
astonishment  and  confusion  will  deter  him  from  farther 
contention. 

In  the  the  case  of  bolting-,  the  rider  must  not  exert  one 
continued  pull,  but  must  make  repeated  pulls  until  the 
horse  obeys.  Horses  accustomed  to  be  allowed  to  bear  on 
the  bit  would  not  understand  the  steady  pull  as  a  signal 
to  desist :  and  some  horses  would  so  throw  up  their  heads 
as  to  deprive  the  rider  of  all  power  without  dropping  his 
hamllwhen  the  horse  v/ould  drop  his  head.  In  that  case 
a  second  pull  would  find  his  mouth,  and  thus  speedily  the 
progress  of  the  horse  might  be  stopped. 


Plunging. 

In  plunging,  a  horse  gets  his  head  down,  cringes  his 
tail  between  his  quarters,  sets  his  back  up,  swells  his  body 
to  burst  his  girths,  and  in  this  position,  kicks  and  plunges 
rill  his  breath  can  be  held  no  longer,  that  is,  till  he  makes 
six  o"  eight  plunges. 

To  sit  these  plunges,  is  to  cure  them ;  and  to  do  this, 
the  rider  must  take  a  firm  hold  with  his  legs,  and  be  mind- 
ful that  the  horse,  in  getting  his  head  down,  does  not  pull 
the  rider  forward. 

There  is  no  danger  of  his  rearing ;  and  therefore  the 
rider  has  only  to  keep  his  body  back,  and  hold  firmly  with 
his  hands,  to  prevent  his  throwing  himself  down. 


176  RIDING, 


Shying,  etc. 


When  a  horse,  either  by  shying  or  restiveness,  springs 
to  one  side,  or  turns  short  round,  the  rider's  security  de- 
pends on  strict  conformity  to  the  rules  already  laid  down, 
as  to  not  bearing  in  the  stirrups  ;  keepin  g  his  legs  near  to 
the  horse,  to  be  ready  on  these  sudden  and  unexpected 
occasions  to  lay  hold  ;  and  yielding  the  body  to  go  with 
the  horse. 

When  a  horse  is  about  to  fly  to  one  side,  he  may  be 
stopped  by  his  rider's  leg  being  pressed  on  the  side  he 
would  fly  to,  and  by  keeping  his  head  high  and  straight- 
forwardj  so  as  to  prevent  his  looking  toward  the  object  he 
starts  at.  unless  indeed  it  be  something  you  desire  ^o  ac- 
custom him  to  the  sight  of,  and  then  whether  you  keep 
his  face  to  it  throughout,  to  avert  his  fac  e  at  first  and 
turn  it  gently  toward  it  at  last,  great  steadiness  is  neces- 
sary. 

When  a  horse  curvets  irregularly,  and  twists  himself 
to  and  fro,  his  head  should  be  turned  to  one  side  or  both 
alternately,  without  permitting  him  to  move  out  of  the 
track,  and  the  rider's  leg  should  be  pressed  against  the  op- 
posite side.  In  this  case,  he  cannot  spring  on  one  side, 
because  the  pressure  of  the  leg  prevents  him,  nor  will  he 
spring  to  the  other,  because  his  head  is  turned  that  way? 
and  a  horse  never  starts  to  the  side  to  which  he  looks. 

A  horse,  moreover,  will  not  fly  back  from  anything,  but 
go  forward,  if  both  legs  be  pressed  against  his  sides.  Thus 
he  may  be  made  to  pass  a  carriage  or  other  object  inanar, 
row  road;  and  here  perseverance  is  especially  necessary 
when  the  object  is  just  reached,  or  partly  passed,  for  if  in 


RESTIVENESS.  177 

the  habit  of  going  back  and  turning  round  when  frighten- 
ed, he  will  certainly  do  so  when,  by  the  hand  slackening 
and  legs  failing  to  press,  he  discovers  that  you  are  irreso- 
lute ;  and  this  he  would  probably  do  at  the  most  dangerous 
moment,  when  there  was  scarcely  room  for  him  to  turn, 
and  the  wheels  might  take  him  in  the  rear.  To  touch  his 
curb  rein  at  such  a  moment  would  add  to  the  confusion  and 
danger. 

Restiveness. 

The  horse  generally  commences  his  attack  by  stopping, 
turning  short  round,  mostly  to  the  right  hand,  as  taking 
the  rider  to  the  greatest  disadvantage.  He  expects  the  ri- 
der will  oppose  the  opposite  hand,  designedly  attacks  the 
weakest,  and  is  so  prepared  against  its  efforts,  that  it  is 
vain  to  attempt  them. 

It  must  be  the  rider's  rule — never  to  contend  with  the 
horse  on  that  point  on  which  he  is  prepared  to  resist. 

Instead,  therefore  of  attempting  to  prevent  the  horse 
with  his  left  hand,  the  rider  must  attack  hirn  with  his 
right,  turn  him  completely  round,  so  that  his  head  is 
again  presented  the  right  way,  and  then  must  apply  the 
whip. 

If  he  turn  round  again,  the  rider  must  still  attack  his 
unguarded  side,  turn  him  two  or  three  times,  and  let  the 
heel  and  spur,  if  necessary,  assist  the  hand,  before  he  can 
arm  or  defend  himself  against  it. 

If  he  still  refuse  to  go  the  right  way,  the  rider  must  take 
care  that  he  go  no  other,  and  immediately  change  his  at- 
tack, turning  him  about  and  reining  him  backward,  which 


178  RIDING. 

the  horse  is  easily  compelled  to  do  when  he  sets  himself 
against  going  forward. 

In  these  contests,  the  rider  must  be  collected,  and  have 
an  eye  to  the  surrounding  objects  ;  for  restive  horses  try 
their  utmost  to  place  their  riders  in  awkward  situations, 
by  sidling  to  other  horses,  carriages,  the  foot-pavement 
the  houses,  &c. 

In  this  case,  the  rider,  instead  of  pulling  him  from  the 
wall,  must  bend  his  head  to  it,  by  which  his  side  next  the 
wall  is  rendered  concave,  and  his  utmost  endeavors  to  do 
injury  are  prevented.  The  instant,  therefore,  that  the  ri- 
der perceives  his  horse  sidling  to  any  object,  he  must  turn 
his  head  to  that  object,  and  back  him  from  it. 

There  are  some  horses  who  iix  themselves  like  stocks, 
setting  all  endeavors  to  move  them  at  defiance. 

There,  happily,  their  defence  can  in  no  way  endanger 
the  rider.  It  must,  however,  be  converted  to  punishment. 
Let  them  stand;  make  no  attempt  to  move  them;  and  in 
a  short  space,  frequently  less  than  a  minute,  they  will 
move  of  themselves. 

When  these  various  defences,  however,  are  not  power- 
fully set  up,  the  general  rule  is  to  push  the  horse  forward ; 
and,  for  this  purpose,  at  first  to  make  use  of  the  switch,  as 
it  alarms  him  least,  for  the  spurs  surprise  a  horse,  abate  his 
courage,  and  are  likely  to  make  him  restive.  Indeed,  the 
application  of  the  whip,  or  spurs,  except  to  shift  the  croupe, 
or  give  efficacy  to  the  hands,  is  of  little  use ,  and  to  repeat 
either,  to  mak  e  a  restive  horse  go  forward,  is  certainly 
wrong. 

Whatever  passion  possesses  the  rider,  it  prevents  that 


TREATMENT      OP      THE      HORSE,  17*J 

concord  and  unity  taking  place  which  ever  should  subsist 
between  the  rider  and  his  horse.  The  rider,  therefore , 
must  always  be  disposed  to  amity,  and  should  never  suffer 
the  most  obstinate  resistance  of  the  horse  to  put  him  out  of 
temper.  If  the  contest  do  not  demand  his  utmost  exertion 
of  strength,  he  should  be  able  to  hum  a  tune,  or  converse 
with  the  same  composure  and  indifterence  as  though  the 
horse  were  all  obedience. 

By  this  means",  the  instant  a  horse  finds  himself  foiled, 
he  desists,  having  no  provocation  to  contend  farther,  and  is 
abashed  at  his  own  weakness.  It  is  the  absence  of  passion 
which,  added  to  cool  observation,  makes  the  English  the 
best  riders  and  drivers  in  the  world. 


TREATMENT    6P   THE   HORSE. 

A  horse  ought  not  to  be  rode  a  stage  while  in  physic,  ner 
on  the  day  of  its  coming  ofi! 

If  a  horse  be  pushed  at  first  setting  out  on  a  journey,  or 
be  compelled  to  make  long  stages,  or  be  deprived  of  his 
customary  baits,  he  gets  jaded,  and  every  additional  m  lie 
adds  to  his  uneasiness. 

Moreover,  at  setting  out  in  the  morning,  a  well-kept 
horse  is  necessarily  full  of  food,  and  consequently  until 
his  great  gut  be  properly  emptied,  brisk  action  occasion?^; 
uneasiness  or  pain,  which  causes  restlessness. 

Hence  it  follows  that,  although  expedition  be  indespensa- 
ble,  the  horse  ought  not  to  be  put  on  his  best  pace  at  first, 
but  considerably  within  it.  Even  this  pace  should  be  for 
a  short  space  only ;  the  reins  should  be  loosened ;  the  month 


ISO  RIDING. 

played  M'ith  ;  and  if  he  do  not  evacuate,  the  pace  may  be 
I'epealed  once  more,— unless  indeed  he  sweat  much  with 
the  first,  which  is  a  sign  of  weakness,  or  that  his  dung  is 
hard,  and  he  requires  purging. 

While  on  the  journey,  the  rider  should  be  less  attentive 
to  his  horse's  nice  carriage  of  himself,  than  to  his  own  en- 
coaragement  of  him,  and  keeping  him  in  good  humor. 

Though  generally  the  rider  should  raise  his  horse's  head, 
yet  when  he  flags,  in  consequence  of  a  long  day  or  hard 
Avork,  the  rider  may  indulge  him  with  bearing  a  little  more 
upon  the  bit  than  he  would  in  taking  a  mere  airing  exer- 
cise, or  afternoon's  canter  in  the  Park. 

Keeping  company  with  some  other  horseman  facilitates 
a  stage,  by  the  emulation  it  excites;  so  that  a  dull  animal, 
which  one  can  scarcely  get  seven  miles  an  hour  from,  will 
do  nine  or  ten  without  fatigue  when  in  company. 

In  road-riding,  a  picker  is  indespensable  both  in  winter 
and  summer.  In  winter,  it  is  necessary  to  relieve  the  sole 
when  snow  accumulates  there.  When,  however,  the  tra- 
veller knows  that  snow  is  on  the  ground,  he  may  avoid  the 
trouble  of  dismounting  by  previously  ordering  his  horse's 
soles  to  be  payed  over  with  tar,  or  with  tallow  having  no 
saltin  it.  At  all  times,  when  the  roads  have  received  fresh 
dressings,  a  picker  is  indespensable,  because  a  loose  stone 
is  very  liable  to  lodge  in  the  hollow  of  the  foot,  and  is  dan- 
gerously driven  backwards  between  the  frog  and  the  shoe, 
at  every  step  the  horse  takes. 

Pace  and  length  of  stage  must  be  adapted  to  the  heat  of 
the  weather  in  summer,  and  to  the  depth  of  the  roads  in 


TREATMENT      OP      THE      HORSE.  181 

winter ;  both  seasons  having  the  effect  of  knocking  up  the 
horse.  In  either  case,  a  cordial  promptly  administered 
recovers  the  horse  for  the  prosecution  of  his  journey. 

The  cordial  readiest  provided,  and  which  should  be  kept 
at  hand  by  the  provident  traveller,  is  in  the  form  of  ball, 
and  composed  of  aniseeds,  ginger,  carraway,  of  each  pow- 
dered, half  an  ounce,  and  mixedup  with  treacle  and  meal 
to  the  proper  consistence.  But  good  ale  or  porter,  from 
one  pint  to  a  quart,  made  warm,  operates  sooner,  and,  upon 
emergency,  is  nearly  as  readily  obtained  as  the  ball. 

As,  upon  sitting  out,  we  should  not  go  off  at  the  quickest 
pace,  so,  upon  coming  in,  should  we  not  dash  into  our  quar- 
ters with  the  perspiration  streaming  from  each  pore,  in  the 
mild  season,  nor  covered  over  with  dirt,  in  consequence  of 
the  pace,  in  wet  weather. 

Even  in  winter,  the  perspiration  flies  from  a  strong 
horse,  if  in  condition,  upon  coming  into  more  sheltered 
places,  and  the  practices  he  is  then  subjected  to,  are  com- 
monly of  such  a  nature  as  to  cause  disease  in  one  way  or 
another,  in  embryo,  if  not  immediately. 

The  rider  is  greatly  to  be  blamed  who  stands  quietly  by, 
or  hides  his  head  in  the  parlor,  while  his  horse  is  led 
about  to  cool  at  such  a  season,  or  has  the  dirt  washed  off 
by  plunging  him  in  a  horse-trough  or  pond,  or  his  le^.s 
brushed  in  cold  water  in  the  open  yard ;  the  consequence 
of  which  is  cough  or  colic,  or  bad  eyes,  or  swelled  legs,  or 
inflamation  of  some  vital  part,  whichdeprives  the  animal' 
of  life. 
On  the  contrary,  the  horse,  on  coming  in,  after  being 


183  RIDING. 

coaxed  to  stale,  should  undergo  (in  winter-time  in  doors) 
a  wisping  all  over  with  straw,  beginning  at  the  head,  and 
proceeding  to  the  neck  and  fore-quarters. 

He  should,  at  the  same  time,  have  before  him  a  lock  of 
.sweeet  hay,  in  his  rack,  or  a  prickle,  or  the  hand ;  and  the 
lider  should  see  whether  he  eats  or  not,  whether  he  enjoys 
the  wisping,  and  whether  he  chiefly  evince  a  desire  to  lie 
down  or  a  craving  for  food. 

The  girths  having  been  already  loosened,  but  the  saddle 
still  remaming  on  his  back,  the  horse's  head  should  be 
turned  to  the  rack,  and  his  hind-quarters,  legs,  and  belly, 
sheath  and  foi  k,  should  be  wisped. 

After  this,  the  saddle  should  be  removed  by  sliding  it 
back  over  the  croupe;  and  the  dressing  should  beexten- 
dedtothe  withers,  back,  and  so  completely  all  over  the  car- 
cass, until  it  is  dry. 

If  the  horse  refuse  the  first  proffer  of  hay  the  rider  may 
conclude  that  he  has  been  pushed  too  much,  as  to  time  or 
length.  If  he  still  refuse  his  food,  though  the  dressing  be 
finished,  the  rider  may  be  assured  that  his  stomach  is  dis- 
ordered, and  he  must  be  cordialled. 

In  winter,  a  warm  mash  of  malt  is  most  eligible ;  but  if 
not  at  hand,  abranmash  with  an  admixture  of  oatmeal  and 
a  guart  of  good  ale,  may  be  given.  In  summer,  a  cordial 
ball  will  restore  the  tone  of  his  stomach,  without  increas- 
]  ng  the  heat  of  his  body  so  much  as  a  mash  would.  If  the 
horse  is  not  aged,  nor  inured  to  cordialling,  a  small  pail 
of  stout  water-gruel,  almost  cold,  excels  all  other  cordials, 
and  supercedes  the  necessity  of  watering :  he  will  take 
his  supper  an  hour  or  so  afterwards,  with  a  relish. 


TREATMENT      OP      THE      HORSE.  183 

T)ie  traveller  ought  to  look  to  every  particular  himself. 
—In  the  next  place,  let  him  see  that  his  horse  gets  his  al- 
lowance of  corn,  that  it  be  good,  and  that  it  contain  no  in- 
dications of  having  been  in  a  manger  before ;  for,  in  that 
case,  he  must  wait  by  him  until  all  the  food  is  devoured. 

Dry  food  is  alone  proper  to  travel  upon,  and  oats  are 
the  best ;  much  hay  being  apt  to  engender  flatulencies. 
When,  however,  a  very  long  stage  is  to  be  taken,  or  it  is 
cold,  dreary,  wet,  or  windy,  a  handful  of  crushed  beans 
sustain^im  admirably,  staying  by  him  and  imparting 
vigor  for  a>lQng  time. 

The  horse  should  not  be  denied  water  often ;  though  not 
too  much  at  one  lime,  nor  too  cold,  nor  immediately  after 
a  meal. 

The  horse's  feet  and  shoes  should  be  looked  to,  to  as- 
certain if  aught  require  repair,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
furnished  as  soon  as  he  has  recovered  from  his  fatigue. 
— His  limbs,  moreover  should  be  examined  all  over, 
for  cracks,  pricked  foot, .  &c.,  and  the  body,  for  saddle- 
galls,  &c. 

Now,  as  ever,  the  horse's  dunging  should  be  looked  to. 
Even  if  in  full  condition,  having  been  well  and  regularly 
fed,  and  as  regularly  worked,  he  will  contract  a  tendency 
to  constipation ;  the  least  ill  consequence  of  which  is  defec- 
tive pace,  or  short  step,  arising  from  more  labored  action. 
As  the  inconvenience  may  be  suffered  to  last,  he  sweats  im- 
moderately at  the  least  extra  exertion,  his  eyes  lose  their 
wonted  brightness,  his  mouth  becomes  hot,  and  his  man- 


184  RIDING. 

ner  is  languid.  All  these  evils  may  be  prevented  by 
timely  physicing,  whenever  the  dung  is  seen  to  fall  upon 
the  ground  without  the  pellets  breaking.  Even  a  little 
green  food,  or  a  day's  mashing  with  bran,  thin  oatmeal 
gruel,  and  the  like,  will  soften  the  dung  considerably.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  these  things  must  be  undertaken 
on  blank  days,  when  the  traveller  'is  certain  the  horse  will 
not  be  ridden  a  stage. 


185 


DRIVING. 


[Throughout  this  treatise,  the  less  is  said,  that  its  gene- 
ral principles  are  involved  in  those  of  riding,  which  have 
been  already  delivered  so  much  in  detail.] 

IMPORTANCE   OF    DRIVING   AS   AN  ART,   IN   ANCIENT   AND 
MODERN   TIMES. 

Among  the  ancients,  for  more  than  one  thousand  years, 
the  greatest  honour  that  could  be  bestowed  upon  a  man, 
was  a  sprig  of  the  wild  olive  tree  entwined  round  his  brow, 
for  having  gained  a  victory  in  the  chariot-race  at  the 
Olympic  games  of  Greece.  This  sprig  of  olive,  moreover 
was  accompanied  by  other  marks  of  distinction ;  the 
wearer  of  it  was  not  only  honoured  with  statues  and  in- 
scriptions during  his  life-time,  but  the  immortal  Pindar, 
or  some  other  great  poet,  was  called  upon  to  hand  his 
name  down  to  posterity  in  an  ode. 

The  Olympic  games  were  revived,  as  a  religious  cere- 
mony, by  Iphitus,  an  Elean,  about  nine  hundred  years  be- 
fore Christ.  They  were  celebrated  near  Olympia,  in  the 
territory  of  Elis.  Horse  and  chariot  races  were  considered 
their  noblest  sports.  No  one  was  there  prevented  from 
drivinghis  own  chariot;  and  kings  were  often  seen  con- 
tending against  kings. 

The  Greeks  were  the  most  enlightened  of  the  ancients, 


186  DRIVING. 

and  their  taste  in  the  arts  has  never  been  even  rivalled. 
What  they  did,  therefore,  on  this  occasion,  could  not  be 
considered  as  in  bad  taste;  and,  when  we  remember  that 
the  celebration  of  these  pastimes  outlived  the  laws,  cus- 
toms, and  liberty  of  their  country,  we  need  not  say  more 
in  their  vmdication. 

The  honours  of  victory  were  not  even  confined  to  the 
brave  and  skilful  man  who  won  the  race  ;  even  the  horses 
were  crowned  amidst  the  applauses  of  the  spectators;  and 
in  one  race,  where  forty  chariots  were  broken,  the  victori- 
ous one  was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  Such 
being  the  havoc  among  the  competitors,  it  is  not  wonder- 
ful that  Ovid  should  saj^,  that  the  honour  of  contending 
for  the  Olympic  prize  was  almost  equal  to  the  winning 
of  it. 

Sophocles  modestly  speaks  often  starting  at  the  same 
time  in  the  race;  butPinder,  availing  himself  perhaps  of 
poetic  license,  makes  the  number  forty.  Four  horses 
driven  abreast  was  the  usual  number.  The  length*  of  the 
course  on  which  they  ran  did  not  exceed  an  English  mile, 
and  as  they  had  to  make  twenty-two  turnings  round  the 
two  pillars — generally,  we  may  suppose,  at  full  speed — it  is 
not  difficult  to  imagine  what  dreadful  accid  ents  must  have 
happened. 

Nothing  indeed  but  the  form  of  chariot  used  eould  have 
ensured  safety  to  any  one.    From  the  representations  on 


•The  Circus  Maximus  at  Rome,  in  which  the  Romans  exhibited 
their  chariot-races,  was  an  oval  building  of  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  four  hundred  in  breadth. 


I 


IMPORTANCE      OF      DRIVING,      ETC.  187 

ancient  coins,  it  appears  to  have  been  very  low,  and  only 
on  two  wheels,  somewhat  resembling  our  curricle.  It  had 
of  course  no  springs ;  and,  as  there  was  no  seat  for  the 
charioteer,  much  of  his  skill  consisted  in  preserving  his 
balance,  and  keeping  upon  his  legs. 

According  to  Pausanias,  the  following  was  the  method 
of  starting;  the  chariots  entered  the  course  according  to 
order,  previously  settled  by  lot,  and  drew  up  in  a  line. 
They  started  at  a  signal  given,  and  to  him  who  passed  the 
pillar  at  the  top  of  the  course  twelve  times,  and  that  at  the 
bottom  ten  times,  in  the  neatest  manner,  without  touching 
it,  or  overturning  his  chariot,  was  the  reward  given.  As 
however,  it  was  the  aim  of  every  one  who  started  to  make 
for  this  pillar,  as  to  a  centre,  we  can  easily  imagine  the 
confusion  there  must  have  been  in  forty,  twenty,  or  even 
ten  chariots,  all  rushing  to  one  given  point,  amidst  the 
clanging  of  trumpets,  &c. 

The  following  translation  of  a  description  of  a  chariot- 
race,  from  the  Electra,  of  Sophocles,  is  worthy  of  aplace. 

'  When  on  the  second  day,  in  order  next 

Came  on  the  contest  of  the  rapid  car, 

As  o'er  the  Phocian  plain  the  orient  sun 

Shot  his  impurpled  beams,  the  Phythic  course 

Orestes  enter'd  circled  with  a  troop 

Of  Charioteers,  his  bold  ant;igonists. 

One  from  Achaia  came  ;  from  Sparta  one  ; 

Two  from  the  Lybian  shores,  well  practised  each 

To  rule  the  whirling  car  ;  with  these  the  fifth, 

Orestes,  vaunting  his  Thessalian  mares ; 

^tolia  sent  a  sixth,  with  youthful  steeds 

In  native  gold  arrayed  ;  the  next  in  rank 


188  DRIVING. 

From  fair  Magnesia  sprang ;  of  Thrace  the  eight 
His  snow  white  coursers  from  Tliesprotia  drove ; 
From  heaven-built  Athens  the  ninth  hero  came; 
A  huge  Boeotian  the  tenth  chariot  iilled. 
These,  when  tbe  judges  of  tlie  games  hy  lot 
Had  fixed  their  order,  and  arranged  their  cars, 
All,  at  the  trumpet's  signal,  all  at  once 
Burst  from  the  barrier ;  all  together  cheer'd 
Their  fiery  steeds,  and  shook  the  floating  reins. 
Soon  with  the  din  of  rattling  cars  was  fiU'd 
The  sounding  hippodrome,  and  clouds  of  dust 
Ascending,  tainted  the  fresh  breath  of  morn. 
Now  mix'd  and  press'd  together,  on  they  drove, 
Nor  spared  the  smarting  lash  -,  impatient  each 
To  clear  his  chariot,  and  outstrip  the  throng 
Of  dashing  axles,  and  i  hort-blowing  steeds, 
They  panted  on  each  other's  necks,  and  threw 
On  each  contiguous  yoke  the  milky  fcam. 

'  But  to  the  pillar  as  he  nearer  drew, 
Orestes,  reining  in  the  nearmost  steed. 
While  in  a  larger  scope,  with  loosen'd  reins. 
And  lash'd  up  to  their  speed,  the  others  flew, 
Turn'd  swift  around  the  gaol  his  grazing  wheel. 

'  As  yet  erect,  upon  their  whirling  orbs 
Roll'd  every  chariot,  till  the  hard-mouth'd  steeds 
That  drew  the  Thracian  car,  unmaster'd  broke 
With  violence  away,  and  turning  short 
(When  o'er  the  hippodrome  with  winged  speed 
They  had  completed  now  the  seventh  career), 
Dash'd  their  wild  foreheads  'gainst  the  Lybian  car. 
From  this  one  luckless  chance  a  train  of  ills 
Succeeding,  rudely  on  each  other  fell 
Horses  and  charioteers,  and  soon  was  fiU'd 
With  wrecks  of  shattered  cars  the  Phocian  plain. 


IMPORTANCE      OF      DRIVING,      ETC.  189 

'  This  seen,  the  Athenian,  with  consummate  art, 
His  course  obllquelj'  veer'd  and  steering  wide 
With  steady  rein,  the  wild  commotion  pass'd 
Cif  tumbling  chariots  and  tumultuous  steeds. 
Next,  and  though  last,  yet  full  of  confidence 
And  hopes  of  victory,  Orestes  came : 
But  when  he  saw  of  his  antagonists 
Him  only  now  remaining,  to  his  mares 
Anxious  he  raised  his  stimulating  voice. 
And  now  wi'.h  equal  fronts  abreast  they  drove. 
Now  with  alternate  momentary  pride 
Beyond  each  other  push'd  their  stretching  steeds. 

'  Erect  Orestes,  and  erect  his  car 
Through  all  the  number'd courses  now  had  stood  ; 
But  luckless  in  the  last,  as  round  the  goal 
The  wheeling  courser  turn'd,  the  hither  rein 
Imprudent  he  relax'd,  and  on  the  stone 
'J'he  shatter'd  axle  dashing,  from  the  wheels 
Fell  headlong ;  hamper'd  in  the  tangling  reins 
Tlio  frighted  mares  flew  divers  o'er  the  course. 

'  The  throng'd  assembly,  when  they  saw  the  chief 
Hurrd  from  his  chariot,  with  compassion  mov'd 
His  youth  deplored ;  deplored  him,  glorious  late 
For  mighty  deeds,  now  doom'd  to  mighty  woes ; 
Now  dragg'd  along  the  dust,  his  feet  in  air ; 
Till  hasting  to  his  aid,  and  scarce  at  length 
The  frantic  mares  restraining  from  the  reins. 
The  charioteers  released  him,  and  convey'd, 
With  wounds  and  gore  disfigur'd  to  his  friends. 
The  just  Amphictyons  on  the  Athenian  steeds 
The  Delphic  laurel  solemnly  conferr'd.' 

In  a  political  view,  these  games  were  productive  of  lo- 
cal advantages;  for,  being  sacred  to  Jupiter,  they  protect- 


190  DRIVING. 

ed  the  inhabitants  of  Elis  against  all  the  calamities  of  war. 
In  an  economical  view,  they  were  of  general  use ;  for,  as 
Greece  was  generally  short  of  horses,  nothing  was  so  like- 
ly to  encourage  the  breeding  of  them  as  the  emulation 
thus  raised  among  the  different  states.  The  circulation  of 
money  also  was  not  a  trifling  consideration ;  for  the  olive 
crown  was  obtained  at  great  expense.  By  these  games 
being  celebrated  at  the  beginning  of  every  fifth  year,  the 
Greeks  settled  their  chronology  and  dates  ;  and  as  they 
lasted  a  thousand  years,  a  great  part  of  the  traditional 
history  of  Greece  rests  upon  their  base. 

That  the  honor  of  the  prize  was  above  all  price,  the 
following  anecdote  shows.  A  Spartan  having  gained  the 
victory  at  the  Olympic  games  with  much  difficulty,  was 
asked  what  he  should  profit  by  it  7  'I  shall  have  the  hon. 
or,'  said  he, '  of  being  posted  before  my  king  in  battle.' — 
As  a  farther  proof  of  the  value  and  the  moral  effect  of 
these  contentions  for  honor,  it  is  stated  that,  when  a  con- 
querer  returned  to  his  native  city,  he  made  his  entry 
through  a  breach  in  the  wall,  by  which  was  implied  that 
cities  inhabited  by  such  men  had  no  need  of  walls. 

A  senator  of  Rome,  indeed,  says  Gibbon,  'or  even  a 
citizen,  conscious  of  his  dignity,  would  have  blushed  to 
expose  his  person  or  his  horses  in  a  Roman  circus.  There, 
the  reins  were  abandoned  to  servile  hands  ;  and,  if  the  pro- 
fits of  a  favorite  charioteer  sometimes  exceeded  those  of  an 
advocate,  they  were  considered  as  the  effects  of  popular 
extravagance,  and  the  high  wages  of  a  disgraceful  pro- 
fession.' The  Romans,  with  more  pride,  were  far  less 
intellectual  than  the  Greeks ;  but  it  must  still  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  inconsistently  enough,  the  interest  taken  in  the 


IMPORTANCE      OF      DRIVING,      ETC.  191 

charioteers  of  Rome  shook  the  very  foundation  of  the 
government. 

In  modern  times,  notwithstanding  the  sneers  directed 
against  the  gentlemen-coachmen  and  driving-clubs,  it  is  to 
them  chiefly  that  this  country  is  indebted  for  the  present 
excellent  state  of  the  roads,  and  for  safe  and  expeditious 
travelling. 

The  taste  for  driving  produced,  between  men  of  property 
and  those  connected  with  the  road,  an  intercourse  which 
has  been  productive  of  the  best  results.  Road-makers,  and 
those  who  have  the  care  of  roads,  if  they  have  not  acted 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  these  amateur  drivers, 
have  been  greatly  benefited  by  their  advice — doubly  val- 
uable, as  proceeding  from  knowledge  of  what  a  road 
ought  to  be. 

The  intercourse  also  that  has  lately  been  carried  on  be- 
tween proprietors  of  inns  and  of  coaches,  and  gentlemen 
fond  of  driving,  has  greatly  tended  to  direct  the  attention 
of  the  former  to  the  accommodation  and  comfort  of  travel- 
lers. The  improvement  in  carriages — stage-coaches  more 
especially — would  never  have  arrived  at  its  present  height, 
but  for  the  attention  and  suggestions  of  such  persons. 

Moreover,  the  notice  taken  by  gentlemen  of  coachmen 
who  are  at  once  skillful,  and  who  conduct  themselves  well, 
has  worked  the  reformation  which  has  been  of  late  years 
witnessed  in  that  useful  part  of  society. 

Gentleman-driving,  however,  has  received  a  check,  very 
few  four-in-hands  being  visible.  The  B.  D.  C,  or  Benson 
Driving  Club,  which  now  holds  its  rendezvous  at  the 
Black  Dog,  Bedfont,  is  the  only  survivor  of  those  nume- 


192  D  R  1  V  N  G . 

rous  driving  associations  whose  processions  used,  some 
twenty  years  ago,  to  be  among  the  most  imposing,  as  well 
as  peculiar  spectacles  in  and  about  the  metropolis. 


THE   ROADS. 

The  excellence  of  our  present  mail-coach  work  reflects 
the  highest  credit  on  the  state  of  our  roads.  The  hills  on 
great  roads  are  now  cut  triangularly,  so  that  drivers  as- 
cend nearly  all  of  them  in  a  trot.  Coachmen  have  found 
out  that  they  are  gainers  here,  as,  in  the  trot,  every  horse 
does  his  share,  w^hereas,  very  few  teams  are  all  at  work 
together  when  walking. 

As,  however,  dreadful  accidents  have  occurred  to  coach- 
es when  descending  hills,  a  very  simple  expedient  has 
been  suggested,  by  which  these  accidents  may  be  avoided- 
It  is  merely  a  strip  of  gravel,  or  broken  stone,  about  one 
yard  wide,  and  four  or  five  inches  deep,  left  on  the  near 
side  of  a  hill,  aad  nev^er  suffered  to  bind  or  diminish.  This 
would  afford  that  additional  friction  (technically  called  a 
bite)  to  the  two  near,  side  wheels,  so  that  the  necessity  of  a 
drag-chain  (never  to  be  trusted)  would  be  done  away  with 
and  even  in  case  ofahame-strap  or  pole-chain  giving  way 
one  wheel-horse  would  be  able  to  hold  back  a  coach,  how- 
ever heavily  laden.  No  inconvenience  to  the  road,  it  is 
observed,  could  arise  from  this  precaution,  as  carriages  as- 
cending the  hills  would  never  be  required  to  touch  the 
loose  gravel,  it  not  being  on  their  side  of  the  road. 

This  has  been  objected  to,  because  some  of  the  loose 
stones  might  find  their  way  into  the  middle  of  the  road. 


THE     ROADS.  293 

But,  admitting  this  might  be  the  case,  a  trifling  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  surveyor  would  obviate  the  objection. 

A  man  might  be  employed  every  second  or  third  day  to 
rake  these  stones  back  again.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  neat  appearance  of  a  road  is  not  to  be  put 
m  the  scale  against  the  limbs  and  lives  of  the  people  — 
Some  more  permanent  contrivance  than  loose  stones  might 
even  be  found. 


CARRIAGES. 


Ofcarriages,  those  with  two  wheels  are  the  cheapest 
lightest,  and  most  expeditious  ;  but,  however  sure-footed 
the  horse,  and  however  skilful  the  driver,  they  are  compa- 
ratively dangerous  vehicles. 

As  to  gentlemen's  carriages,  in  this  country,  it  has  justl  v 
been  observed,  that  the  view  at  Hyde  Park  Corner,  on  any 
fine  afternoon,  in  the  height  of  the  London  season  is 
enough  to  confound  any  foreigner,  from  whatever  part  of 
the  world  he  may  come.  He  may  there  see  what  no  other 
coumry  can  show  him.  Let  him  only  sit  on  the  rail  near 
the  statue,  and  in  the  space  of  two  hours  he  will  'see  a 
thousand  well-appointed  equipages  pass  before  him  tbthe 
Mall,  m  all  the  pomp  of  aristocratic  pride,  in  which  the 
horses  themselves  appear  to  partake.  The  stream  of  equi- 
pages ofall  kinds,  barouches,  chariots,  cabriolets,  &c.  and 
almost  all  got  up  ^regardless  of  expense,'  flows  on  un- 
broken  until  it  is  half-past  seven,  and  people  at  last 
begin  to  think  of  what  they  still  call  dinner.     Seneca  tells 

«s  that  such  a  blaze  ofsplendour  was  once  to  be  seen  on 
13 


194  DRIVING. 

the  Appian  way.  It  might  be  so— it  is  now  to  be  seen 
nov/here  but  in  London. 

As  to  stage-coaches,  their  form  seems  to  have  arrived  at 
perfection.  It  combines  prodigious  strength  with  almost 
incredible  lightness;  many  of  them  not  weighing  more 
than  about  18  cwt.,  and  being  kept  so  much  nearer  the 
ground  than  formerly,  they  are  of  course  considerably  safer. 

Nothing  indeed  can  be  more  favourable  to  safety  than 
the  build  of  modern  coaches.  The  boots  being .  let  down 
between  the  springs,  keep  the  load,  and  consequently  the 
centre  of  gravity,  low  ;  the  wheels  of  many  of  them  are 
secured  by  patent  boxes ;  and  in  every  part  of  them  the 
best  materials  are  used, 

Thecostof  coaches  of  this  description  is  from  130Z.  to 
150?. ;  but  they  are  generally  hired  from  the  maker  at 
2  l-2d.  to  3d.  per  mile. 

It  is  said  to  be  the  intention  of  Government  to  substitute 
light  carriages  with  two  horses  for  the  present  mail-coaches 
drawn  by  four.  On  this,  a  writer  in  the  Cluarterly  Review 
observes,  that  when  the  mail-coach  of  the  present  day 
starts  from  London  for  Edinburgh,  a  man  may  safely  bet  a 
hundred  to  one  that  she  arrives  to  her  time ;  but  let  a  light 
two-horse  vehicle  set  out  on  the  same  errand,  and  the  bet- 
ting would  strangely  alter.  It  is  quite  a  mistaken  notion 
that  a  carriage  is  less  liable  to  accidents  for  being  light. 
On  the  contrary,  she  is  more  liable  to  them  than  one  tliat 
is  laden  in  proportion  to  her  sustaining  powers.  In  the 
latter  case,  she  runs  steadily  along,  and  is  but  little 
disturbed  by  any  obstacle  or  jerk  she  may  meet  on  the 


CARRIAGES.  195 

road :  in  the  former,  she  is  constantly  on  '  the  jump.'  ar; 
coachmen  call  it,  and  her  iron  parts  are  very  liable  to 
snap. 

It  may  in  this  place  be  observed,  that  no  stage-coach 
should  be  permitted  to  travel  the  road  with  wheels  secur- 
ed only  by  the  common  linchpin.  It  is  in  consequence  o  t 
this  that  innumerable  accidents  have  happenedto  coaches, 
from  wheels  coming  off;  and  in  these  improving  and  fas 
times,  such  chances  should  not  be  allowed  to  exist. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  uninitiated  to  learu 
from  the  same  clever  and  experienced  writer  how  a  coach 
is  worked. — Suppose  a  number  of  persons  to  enter  into  a 
contract  to  horse  a  coach  eighty  miles,  each  proprietor 
having  twenty  miles ;  in  which  case  he  is  said  to  cover 
both  sides  of  the  ground,  or  to  and  fro. — At  the  expiration 
of  twenty-eight  days  a  settlement  takes  place,  and  if  the 
gross  earnings  of  the  coach  be  101.  per  mile,  there  will  be 
8()0Z.  to  divide  between  the  four  proprietors,  after  the  ibi- 
lowing  charges  have  been  deducted,  viz.  tolls,  duty  to  gov- 
ernment, mileage  (or  hire  of  the  coach  to  the  coach-ma- 
kers), two  coachmen's  wages,  porter's  wages,  rent  or 
charge  of  booking-offices  at  each  end,  and  washing  the 
coaches.  These  charges  may  amount  to  150Z.,  which 
leaves  650Z.  to  keep  eighty  horses,  and  to  pay  the  herse- 
keepers  for  a  period  of  twenty-eight  days,  or  nearly  160/!. 
|0  each  proprietor  for  the  expenses  of  his  twenty  horses, 
being  21.  per  week  per  horse.  Thus  it  appears  that  a  fast 
coach  properly  appointed  cannot  pay,  unless  its  gross  re- 
ceipts amount  to  10^.  per  double  mile ;  and  that  even  then 
the  proprietor's  profits  depend  on  the  luck  he  has  with  his 
stock. 


1%  DRIVING. 


COACH-HORSES. 


A  great  change  has  lately  taken  place  as  to  the  English 
coach-horse;  and  this  is  the  loundation  of  many  other  ac" 
coinpanying  changes. 

Fifty  years  ago,  the  putting  a  thoroughbred  horse  into 
harness  would  have  been  deemed  preposterous.  In  the 
carriages  of  gentlemen,  the  long-tailed  black  or  Cleveland 
bay — each  one  remove  from  the  cart-horse — was  the  pre- 
vailing sort  ,•  and  six  miles  an  hour  was  the  extent  of  the 
pace.  Now,  however,  this  clumsy-barrelled,  cloddy- 
shouldered,  round-legged  animal,  something  between  a 
coach  and  a  dray  horse,  as  fat  as  an  ox,  and,  with  all  his 
prancing  at  first  starting,  not  capable  of  more  than  six 
miles  an  hour,  and  rendered  useless  by  a  hard  day's  work 
is  no  more  seen  ;  and,  instead  of  him,  we  find  a  horse  as 
tall,  deep-chested,  rising  in  the  withers,  slanting  in  the 
shoulders,  flat  in  the  legs,  with  more  strength,  and  with 
treble  the  speed. 

The  animal  formerly  in  use  cost  from  30^.  to50Z. — Two 
hundred  guineas  is  now  an  every  day  price  for  a  cabriolet 
horse ;  and  150  guineas  for  a  coach-horse,  for  private  or 
gentlemen's  work  A  pair  of  handsome  coach-horses,  fit 
fer  London,  and  well  broken  and  bitted,  cannot  be  pur- 
chasedunder 200 guineas;  and  evenjob-mastersoitengive 
much  more  for  them  to  let  out  to  their  customers. 

The  origin  of  this  superior  kind  of  coach-horse  is  still, 
however,  the  Cleveland  bay,  confined  principally  to  York- 
shire and  Durham,  with  perhaps  Lincolnshire  on  one  side, 
and  Northumberland  on  the  other,  but  diflicult  to  be  met 


COACH- HORSES.  197 

with  pure  in  either  country.  Cleveland  indeed,  and  the 
Vale  of  Pickering,  in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  are 
the  best  breeding  countries  in  England  for  coach-horses, 
hunters,  and  hackneys. 

When  the  Cleveland  mare  is  crossed  by  a  three-fourth 
or  thoroughbred  horse  of  sufficient  substance  and  height, 
the  produce  is  the  coach-horse  most  in  repute,  with  his 
arched  crest  and  high  action. 

From  the  same  mare  and  the  thoroughbred  of  sufficient 
height,  but  not  of  so  much  substance,  we  obtain  the  four- 
in-hand,  and  superior  curricle  horse. 

From  less  height  and  more  substance,  we  derive  the 
hunter,  and  better  sort  of  hackney. 

From  the  half-bred,  we  have  the  the  machiner,  the  pos- 
ter, and  the  common  carriage-horse. 

The  best  coach-horse  is  a  tall,  strong,  over-sized  hunter. 
The  hackney  has  many  of  the  qualities  of  the  hunter  on  a 
small  scale. 

There  is  some  deception,  however,  even  as  to  the  best 
of  these  improved  coach-horses.  They  prance  nobly 
through  the  streets,  and  they  are  capable  of  more  work 
than  the  old  clumsy,  sluggish  breed  ;  but  stillthey  have  not 
the  endurance  that  is  desirable  ;  and  a  pair  of  poor  post- 
horses,  at  the  end  of  the  second  day,  would  beat  them  hol- 
low. 

In  this  carriage-horse,  the  bending  of  the  upper  joints 
and  the  consequent  high  lifting  of  the  feet  are  deemed  an 
excellence,  because  they  add  to  the  grandeur  of  his  appear- 
ance. But  this  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  much 
wear  and  tear  of  the  legs  and  feet,  the  effect  of  which  is 
very  soon  apparent. 


198  DRIVING. 

The  most  desirable  points  in  the  coach-horse  are  sub- 
stance well  placed,  a  deep  and  well-proportioned  body, 
bone  under  the  knee,  and  sound,  open,  tough  feet. 

One  part  of  the  old  system,  however,  remains ;  namely, 
that  although  little  horses  well  bred,  are  the  fashion,  large 
horses  are  still  employed  in  heavy  work.  It  must  indeed 
be  so.  Horses  draw  by  their  weight,  and  not  by  the  force 
of  their  muscles  ;  although  these,  by  carrying  forward 
the  centre  of  gravity,  assist  the  application  of  that  weight ; 
it  is  the  weight  of  the  animal  which  produces  the  draught, 
and  the  power  of  the  muscles  serves  to  direct  it.  The  hind 
feet  form  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever  by  which  this  weight 
sets  against  a  load,  and  the  power  exerted  is  in  proportion 
io  the  length  of  the  lever,  if  the  weight  remain  the  same. 
Large  animals,  therefore,  draw  more  than  small  ones 
though  they  may  have  less  muscular  power,  and  are  una- 
ble to  carry  weight  so  well. 

Nothing  can  belter  show  that  horses  draw  by  their 
weight  than  the  frequent  occurrence  that  a  horse  is  unable 
to  draw  a  cart  out  of  a  slough  until  a  sack  of  corn  is  thrown 
on  his  back,  when  he  has  little  difficulty  in  doing  it.  Thus 
it  is,  that  what  are  technically  called  lobbing-goers,  take 
more  weight  with  them  than  horses  of  better  action. 

As  the  application  of  the  weight  or  force  proceeds  from 
the  fulcrum  formed  by  the  hind  feet,  good  hind  legs  and 
well  spread  gaskins  are  essential  points  in  a  coach-horse. 
We  even  sometimes  see  that  a  waggon-horse,  when  brought 
to  a  pull,  will  not  touch  the  ground  at  all  with  his  fore 
feet. 

Another  reason  why  little  horses  are  unfit  for  heavy 


COACH- HORSES.  199 

work  is,  that  they  will  seldom  walk  and  draw  at  the  same 
time ;  for  if  they  walk,  they  catch  at  their  collars  and  do 
but  little.  Theynever  take  anything  like  an  even  share 
of  draught. 

By-  calculations  as  to  the  mean  strength  of  animals,  it 
appears  that  a  horse  drawing  horizontally,  and  at  the  rate 
of  two  miles  and  a  half  in  an  hour,  can  work  for  eight 
hours  in  succession  against  a  resistance  of  200  lbs.  If  that 
pace  be  quadrupled,  he  finds  an  eight  part  of  the  time  suf- 
ficient. Thus  we  can  pretty  nearly  measure  a  horse's  pow- 
ers in  the  harness. 

Whether  we  are  carrying  supposed  improvement  too 
far,  and  sacrificing  strength  and  endurance  to  speed,  is  a 
question  not  difficult  to  be  resolved. 

A  horse  at  a  pull  is  enabled,  by  the  power  and  direction 
of  his  muscles,  to  throw  a  certain  weight  against  the  col- 
lar. If  he  walk  four  miles  in  the  hour,  part  of  the  muscu- 
lar energy  is  expended  in  the  act  of  walking;  and  conse- 
quently, the  power  of  drawing  must  be  proportionally  di- 
minished. If  he  trot  eight  miles  in  the  hour,  more  of  that 
energy  is  expended  in  the  trot,  and  less  remains  for  the 
draught.  But  the  draught  continues  the  same,  and,  to  en- 
able him  to  accomplish  his  work,  he  must  exert  his  ener- 
gies in  a  degree  so  severe  and  cruel,  that  it  must  speedily 
wear  him  out.  Hence,  there  is  no  truth  so  easily  proved 
or  so  painfully  felt  by  the  post-master,  as  that  it  is  the  pace 
that  kills. 

Moreover,  many  a  horse  used  on  our  public  roads  is  un- 
able toemployallhisnaturalpower,  ortothrow  his  weight 
into  the  collar,  in  consequence  of  being  tender-footed,  or 


200  DRIVING. 

lame.  Being  bought,  however,  at  little  price,  he  is  worked 
on  the  brutal  principle  that  he  may  be  '  whipped  sound ! ' 
— And  so  he  is  appareatly.  At  first,  he  sadly  halts ;  but, 
urged  by  the  torture  of  the  lash,  he  acquires  a  peculiar 
mode  of  going.  The  faulty  limb  keeps  pace  with  the  oth- 
ers ;  but  no  stress  or  labor  is  thrown  upon  it ;  and  he  grad- 
ually contrives  to  make  the  sound  limbs  perform  among 
them  all  the  duties  of  the  unsound  one.  Thus  he  is  bar- 
barously 'whipped  sound,'  and  cruelty  is  for  the  time  un- 
deservedly rewarded.  After  all,  however,  what  is  done  1 
Three  legs  are  made  to  do  that  which  was  almost  too 
much  for  four.  Of  course,  they  are  most  injuriously 
strained,  and  quickly  worn  out ;  the  general  power  of  the 
animal  is  rapidly  exhausted ;  and,  at  no  remote  time,  death 
releases  him  from  his  merciless  persecutors.' 

Happily,  art  is  doing  what  humanity  refuses.  Railroads 
are  rendering  draught  comparitively  easy.  An  instance 
has  been  described  of  the  power  of  a  horse  when  assis- 
ted by  art,  as  exhibited  near  Croydon. — The  Surrey  iron 
rail- way  being  completed,  a  wager  was  laid,  that  a  com- 
mon horse  could  draw  thirty-six  tons  for  six  miles  along 
the  road,  drawing  his  weight  from  a  dead  pull,  and  turn- 
ing it  round  the  occasional  windings  of  the  road.  A  nu- 
merous party  assembled  near  Merstham  to  see  this.--- 
Twelve  waggons  loaded  with  stones,  each  waggon  weigh- 
ing above  three  tons,  were  chained  together,  and  a  horse, 
taken  promiscuously  from  a  timber  cart,  was  yoked  to  the 
train.  He  started  from  a  house  near  Merstham,  and  drew 
the  chain  of  v^aggons  with  apparent  ease  almost  to  the 
turnpike  at  Croydon,  a  distance  of  six  miles,  in  one  hour 


COACH-HORSES.  201 

and  forty-one  minutes,  which  is  nearly  at  the  rate  of  four 
miles  an  hour.  In  the  course  of  the  journey  he  stopped 
four  times,  to  show  that  it  was  not  by  any  advantage  of 
descent  that  his  power  was  facilitated ;  and,  after  each 
stoppage,  he  again  drew  off  the  chain  of  waggons  with 
great  ease.  A  person  who  had  wagered  on  the  power  of 
the  horse,  then  desired  that  four  more  loaded  waggons 
should  be  added  to  the  cavalcade;  and  with  these,  the 
same  horse  set  off  again  with  undiminished  pace.  Still 
further  to  show  the  effect  of  the  railway  in  facilitating 
motion,  the  attending  workmen,  to  the  number  of  fifty 
were  directed  to  mount  on  the  waggons;  and  the  horse 
proceeded  without  the  least  distress.  Indeed,  there  ap- 
peared to  be  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  power  of  his  draught. 
After  this  trial,  the  waggons  were  taken  to  the  weighing- 
machine,  and  it  appeared  that  the  whole  weight  was  as 
follows : 

tons.    cwt.    qrs. 
12  Waggons  first*linked  together  38        4        2 

4  Ditto,  afterwards  attached  13        2        0 

Supposed  weight  of  fifty  laborers         4        0        0 


55        6        2 


It  is  fortunate  for  breeders  of  horses  that  a  perfect  form 
is  not  necessary  to  a  good  coach-horse.  Some  of  those  in- 
deed which  the  London  dealers  sell  at  high  prices  for 
gentlemen's  work,  are  such  brutes  when  out  of  harness, 
t  hat  no  man  would  ride  them  for  their  worth.  The  strong 
and  lengthy  shoulder,  with  w^ell-bent  hind  legs,  are  not 
absolutely  necessary ;  and  a  good  head  and  tail,  with  a 
little  high  action,  are  all  that  is  essential. 


202  DRIVING. 

The  following  are  useful  hints  for  purchasers  of  coach- 
horses. 

No  gentleman  should  purchase  a  horse  without  a  good 
trial  of  his  mouth  and  temper. 

To  be  perfect  in  the  first  respect,  the  horse  should  be 
what  is  called  on  the  road  '  a  cheek  horse  ;'  that  is,  should 
require  very  little  curb,  should  always  be  at  play  with  his 
bit,  and  yet  not  afraid  of  it,  and  should  have  each  side  of 
his  mouth  alike. 

To  a  gentleman's  leader,  a  good  mouth  is  most  essential, 
and  then  the  higher  his  courage,  the  safer  he  is  to  drive. 
"With  stage-coach  horses,  mouth  is  not  of  so  much  conse- 
quence, because  they  are  always  running  home,  and  there 
is  no  turning  and  twisting,  as  in  gentlemen's  work,  which 
is  often  in  a  crowd.  A  whistle,  or  a  click  with  the  tongue 
should  make  a  gentleman's  leader  spring  to  his  collar  in  an 
instant ;  one  that  requires  the  whip  should  be  discharged. 

With  wheel-horses  which  are  steady,  and  hold  well,  a 
coachman  may  almost  set  his  leaders  at  defiance ;  but  if 
they  are  otherwise,  danger  is  at  hand.  It  is  not  a  bad 
plan  to  purchase  wheelers  out  of  coaches,  after  they  have 
been  about  six  months  in  regular  work.  For  from  sixty 
to  eighty  guineas,  the  best  of  any  man's  stock  may  be 
picked  ;  and  a  sound,  well  broke  coach-horse,  is  not  dear 
at  that  price. 

The  coach-horses  of  gentlemen  should  be  high  in  flesh 
as  it  enhances  their  appearance,  and  is  no  obstacle  to 
pace, 

A  sound  five-year  old  horse,  with  good  legs  and  feet, 
and  driven  only  in  harness,  will  last  on  an  average,  from 


C  0  A  C  H-H  O  R  S  E  S  .  203 

six  to  ten  years  in  gentleman's  work,  and  will  afterwards 
be  very  useful  for  other  purposes. 

The  average  price  of  horses  for  fast  stages  is  about  23Z. 
Fancy  teams,  and  those  working  out  of  London,  may  be 
rated  considerably  higher  ;  but  taking  a  hundred  miles  of 
ground,  well  horsed,  this  is  about  the  mark.  The  average 
period  of  each  horse's  service  does  not  exceed  four  years 
in  a  fast  coach,  perhaps  scarcely  so  much.  In  a  slow  one, 
it  may  extend  to  seven.  In  both  cases,  horses  are  suppos- 
ed to  be  put  to  the  work  at  five  or  six  years  old.  The 
price  named  as  the  average  may  appear  a  low  one ;  but 
blemished  horses  find  their  way  into  coaches,  as  do  those 
of  bad  temper,  &c. 

As  no  labor,  while  it  lasts,  is  harder  than  that  of  coach 
horses  in  fast  work,  it  is  wrong  to  purchase  those  which 
are  infirm,  as  many  proprietors  do.  Generally  speaking, 
such  horses  are  out  of  their  work  half  their  time,  and 
are  certain  to  die  in  their  owner's  debt.  As  the  roads  now 
are,  blind  horses  are  less  objectionable  than  infirm  ones. 
A  blind  horse  that  goes  up  to  his  bit  is  both  pleasanter 
and  safer  to  drive  than  one  with  good  eyes  that  hangs 
away  from  his  work.  Blind  horses,  however  work  best 
in  the  night. 

A  horse  cannot  be  called  a  coach-horse,  unless  he  has 
good  legs  and  feet.  As  a  wheel-horse  he  is  never  to  be 
depended  upon  down  hill,  if  he  have  not  sound  limbs. 
He  cannot  resist  weight,  if  he  be  weak  in  his  joints.  To 
bad  legs  and  feet,  are  owing  numerous  accidents  to  coach- 
es, many  of  which  the  public  hear  nothing  of.  If  horses,  on 
the  contrary,  have  good  legs  and  feet,  they  will  last,  even 


304  DRIVING. 

in  the  fastest  work,  many  years,  provided  they  are  shod 
with  care,  and  well  looked  after. 

Proprietors  of  coaches  have  at  length  found  out  that  it 
is  their  interest  to  be  humane  and  liberal  to  their  horses, 
because  the  hay  and  corn  market  is  not  so  expensive  as 
the  horse  market.  They  have,  therefore,  one  horse  in 
four  always  at  rest ;  in  other  words,  each  horse  lies  still 
on  the  fourth  day.  Generally  considered,  perhaps  no  an- 
imal toiling  solely  for  the  profit  of  man,  leads  so  com- 
fortable a  life  as  the  English  coach-horse;  he  is  sumptu- 
ously fed,  kindly  treated,  and  if  he  do  sufier  a  little  in  his 
work,  he  has  twenty-three  hours  in  the  twenty-four  of 
perfect  ease ;  he  is  now  almost  a  stranger  to  the  lash ;  nor 
do  we  ever  see  him  with  a  broken  skin.  No  horse  lives 
so  high  as  a  coach-horse.  Hunters,  in  the  hunting  season 
do  not  eat  the  quantity  of  corn  that  coach-horses  do ;  for 
the  former  are  feverish  after  their  work,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  the  latter,  as  they  become  accustomed  to  this  al- 
most daily  excitement.  In  the  language  of  the  road,  the 
coach-horse's  stomach  is  the  measure  of  his  corn— he  is 
fed  ad  libitum*  The  effect  of  this  is  that  he  soon  gathers 
flesh,  even  in  this  severe  work,  for  there  is  none  more  se- 
vere while  it  lasts ;  and  good  flesh  is  no  obstacle  to  speed, 
but  the  contrary. 

Itisnotfound,  however,  that  (barring  contagious  dis- 
eases) where  their  owners  are  good  judges  of  condition^ 
coach-horses  are  much  subject  to  disease.    After  a  hot 


*  Some  coach- masters  give  their  horses  all  manger-meat;  but  this  is 
wrong,  as  it  often  produces  indigestion  and  disease.  A  certain  portion  of 
long  hay  is  necessary. 


COACH-HORSES.  205 

summer,  coach-horses  are  most  liable  to  derangement ; 
and  the  month  of  October  is  the  worst  in  the  year  for  them, 
in  consequence  of  its  being  their  moulting  season.  Coach- 
horses,  indeed,  are  certain  to  sweat  four  days  out  of  five, 
which  keeps  their  blood  pure,  and  renders  almost  unneces- 
sary medicine,  of  which,  in  general,  they  have  but  a  small 
portion  ,perhaps  less  than  they  should  have.  It  is  a  mistake, 
however,  that  fleshy  horses  cannot  go  fast  in  harness ; 
they  are  more  powerful  in  draught  than  thin  ones;  and, 
having  only  themselves  to  carry,  flesh  does  not  injure 
their  legs,  as  in  riding. 

In  a  fast  coach,  then  a  horse  ought  not  to  work  more 
than  four  days  without  rest,  as  he  becomes  leg- weary,  and 
wears  out  the  sooner ;  and  he  becomes  also  too  highly 
excited.  A  horse  a  mile,  reckoning  only  one  side  of  the 
ground,  is  about  the  proportion.  Thus  we  may  suppose 
tliat  ten  horses  work  the  coach  up  and  down  a  ten-mile 
stage,  which  gives  eight  at  work,  and  two  at  rest.  Every 
horse,  then,  rests  the  fifth  day.  In  slow,  heavy  work, 
however,  coach-horses  will  do  their  ground  every  day, 
barring  accidents  or  illness. 

In  slow  work,  the  average  duration  of  coaching  stock 
may  be  from  six  to  seven  years,  provided  they  are  at  first 
fresh,  and  firm  on  their  legs.  In  fast  work,  their  time  may 
be  from  three  to  four  years,  or  scarcely  perhaps  so  much. 

Coach  proprietors  on  a  large  scale  should  have  a  break 
for  their  young  horses,  previous  to  going  into  regular 
work.    The  practice  of  putting  a  young  horse  unaccus- 


20C  DRIVING. 

tomed  to  harness  into  a  coach  laden  with  passengers  is 
most  reprehensible ;  and  when  injury  is  sustained  by  it,  it 
should  be  visited  by  the  severest  penalties  the  law  can  in- 
flict. 


In  the  manufacture  of  harness  we  have  arrived  at  a 
degree  of  perfection,  to  which  the  invention  of  the  pa- 
tent shining  leather  has  mainly  contributed.  A  hand- 
some horse  well  harnessed  is  a  noble  sight ;  yet  in  no 
country,  except  England,  is  the  art  of  putting  a  horse  in- 
to harness  at  all  understood.  If  however,  our  road  hors- 
es were  put  to  their  coach  in  the  loose  awkward  fashion 
of  the  continental  people,  we  could  not  travel  at  the  rate 
we  do.  It  is  the  command  given  over  the  coach-horse 
that  enables  us  to  do  it. 

In  regard  to  mails,  it  should  be  observed,  that  the  pro- 
prietors who  horse  them  are  not  sufficiently  attentive  to 
the  state  of  the  harness  or  the  ground  worked  by  night ; 
whereas  it  should  in  reality  be  the  best.  If  anything 
break  by  daylight,  it  is  instantly  observed ;  but  it  is  not  so 
in  the  night,  as  lamp-light  is  uncertain  and  treacherous. 

In  speaking  of  particulars,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
bearing  reins  are  a  relief  to  the  arm  of  the  driver,  and  to 
the  horse  himself  in  a  long  journey. 

When  a  wheel-horse  has  the  habit  of  throwing  up  his 
head,  which  greatly  annoys  the  mouth  of  the  leader  be- 
fore him,  a  nose  martingale  should  be  used. 

In  all  kinds  of  work,  a  tool-box  is  a  necessary   append- 


RELATIVE      PLACES      OP      HORSES.  207 

age  to  the  coach.  It  should  contain  a  strong  screw-wrench 
wheel  and  spring  clips,  a  spring  shackle  or  two,  with  bolts 
and  nuts,  and  tw^o  chains — one  for  a  trace,  and  the  other 
shorter,  with  a  ring  at  one  end  and  hook  at  the  other,  in 
case  of  a  tug  giving  way.  In  his  pocket,  the  coach-man 
should  have  a  short  strap  with  a  buckle  at  each  end,  as 
in  case  of  almost  any  part  of  the  reins,  or  indeed  most 
parts  of  the  harness  breaking,  it  comes  into  use  in  a  mo- 
ment. 


RELATIVE   PLACES    OF   HuRSES. 

In  placing  horses  in  a  team,  we  speak  of  near  and  oflf 
horses.  The  term  'near'  is  probably  a  borrowed  one. 
In  a  waggon,  the  near  horse  is  the  one  which  is  nearest 
the  driver,  who  always  walks  with  the  horses  to  his  right 
hand ;  and  the  other,  running  abreast  of  him,  is  called  the 
off  or  far  horse,  because  he  is  farthest  from  the  driver. 
This  terra  indeed  does  not  refer  to  coaching  so  well  as  to 
waggoning,  as  the  coachman  does  not  walk  by  the  side  of 
his  horses  ;  but  many  of  the  terms  of  coachmanship  are 
drawn  from  the  same  source,  and  the  expression  'near 
horse  seems  to  be  among  the  number. 

The  word  '  near '  having  been  thus  made  use  of  in  its 
original  acceptation,  has,  in  some  counties,  gradually  su- 
perseded the  word  left,  in  contradistinction  to  right;  as 
we  hear  occasionally  of  '  the  near  side  of  the  road,'  'the 
near  wheel  of  a  carriage,'  'the  near  leg  of  a  horse  ; '  in 
short,  it  is  substituted  provincially  for  the  word  left. 

Or  the  term  may  have  arisen  intermediately  from  this; 


308  D  RI  VING. 

that  on  the  first  introduction  of  carriages  into  this  coun- 
try there  was  no  driving  on  the  box,  but  on  the  saddle,  and 
that  thence  the  term '  near '  was  used  to  distinguish  the  sad- 
dle-horse, and  the  term  'off,'  of  course,  the  other  horse. 
These  terms  were  afterwards  applied  to  the  road,  where, 
in  meeting  carriages,  according  to  the  adage,  'If  you  go 
to  the  left,  you  are  sure  to  go  right ;  if  you  go  to  the  right 
you  are  wrong.' 

Wheel-horses  have  the  hardest  place,  as  they  are  at 
work  up  hill  and  down.  Nevertheless,  if  favor  be  shown, 
it  must  be  to  the  leaders,  because  a  tired  wheeler  may  be 
dragged  home ;  but  in  the  road  phrase,  if  a  leader  cuts  itj 
you  are  planted.  It  is  a  rule  always  to  put  the  freest  lead- 
er on  the  near  side,  as  he  is  better  in  hand  than  on  the  oth- 
er. If  a  leader  be  weak,  and  cannot  take  his  bar,  the 
wheeler  that  follows  him  must  be  tied  up,  and  this  will 
place  him  by  the  side  of  his  partner.  Leaders  should  be 
fast  trotters  for  fast  coaches  ;  for  if  they  gallop,  the  bars 
are  never  at  rest,  and  consequently  much  of  the  draught 
is  lost  in  the  angles  described. 

To  a  coach-horse  in  fast  work,  wind  is  almost  as  essen- 
tial as  toa hunter.  Many  high-blow^ers,  however,  keep 
their  time  very  well, with  a  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
driver.  If  he  see  them  distressed,  he  ought  to  keep  them 
off  their  collar,  and  let  them  only  carry  their  harness  for 
a  hundred  yards  or  so,  when  they  will  recover,  if  their 
condition  be  good.  They  work  best  as  night  horses ;  and 
if  driven  in  the  heat  of  the  sun,  they  ought  to  be  out  of 
the  throat-lash.  Indeed,  a  leader  should  never  be  throat- 
lashed  in  very  hot  weather,  if  he  can  be  driven  without  it. 


RELATIVE  PLACES  OP  HORSES.        209 

Many  horses  pull,  and  are  unpleasant  in  it,  but  go  tempe- 
rately out  of  it. 

In  coach-horses,  temper  is  much  to  be  regarded.  Some 
contend  that  a  horse  should  never  know  his  place, — should 
go  either  wheeler  or  leader,  and  on  either  side.  If  how- 
ever, a  horse  w^orking  constantly  in  a  coach  prefer  any 
place,  he  should  have  it,  and  he  will  generally  pay  for  the 
indulgence.  Some  horses  indeed  care  not  where  they  are 
put — working  equally  well  or  ill  in  all  places. 

As  to  the  mode  of  putting  young  horses  in  harness,  the 
best  way  is  to  put  one,  for  the  first  time,  with  only  one 
other,  which  ought  to  be  steady,  good-collared,  and  quick. 
Agreat  deal  of  room  should  be  given  his  head,  and  he 
should  be  driven  at  the  cheek  of  an  easy  bit,  with  his  pole- 
piece  rather  slack. 

There  is  great  w^ant  of  judgment  in  throat-lashing  a 
voung  horse  — either  wheeler  or  leader. 

Many  horses  go  perfectly  quiet  as  leaders,  that  w'ould  ' 
never  go  as  wheelers,  because  they  wdll  not  bear  being 
confined  by  the  pole-piece. 

All  horses  ought  to  have  their  sides  frequently  changed 
particularly  3'oung  ones. 

As  to  horses'  mouths,  some  will  not  bear  a  curb-chain 
at  all ,  while  the  bars  and  chins  of  others  are  so  hard,  that 
it  is  difficult  to  make  an  impression  upon  them  ;  the  lat- 
ter being  most  prevalent. 

It  is  difficult,  how^ever,  to  handle  a  coach-Rorse,  par- 
ticularly a  leader,  w'hose  mouth  is  very  tender.     A  snaffle 
is  not  safe,  as,  in  case  of  his  dropping  or  bolting,  it  has  not 
sufficient  power  to  catch  him  up  quickly,  at  such  distance 
14 


210  DRIVING. 

from  the  driver's  hand.  For  a  gig-horse,  it  may  occa- 
sionally answer.  The  usual  plan  then  is  to  '  cheek  him,' 
as  it  is  technically  called,  that  is  to  put  his  coupling  rein 
to  the  check  instead  of  the  bottom  of  thepit.  Should  this 
be  severe  for  him,  and  he  swing  his  head  too  much  towards 
his  partner,  his  draught-rein  should  be  put  down  to  the 
bit,  which  will  bring  him  straight.  He  should  have 
liberty  in  his  bearing-rein,  and  his  curb-chain  should  not 
be  tight.  A  check-rein  to  a  nose  martingale  is  often  of 
service  in  this  case,  as  it  keeps  his  head  steady,  and  makes 
him  face  his  work.  Such  horses  in  general  work  more 
pleasantly  out  of  the  throat-lash. 

Horses  with  very  hard  mouths  require  the  bit  with 
double  port,  the  ChifFney  bit,  or  the  plan  of  putting  the 
curb-chain  over  the  tongue  instead  of  under  the  chin, 
which  in  some  prevents  what  is  termed  a  dead  mouth. 

Letting  out  the  head  of  the  bridle  in  the  middle  of  a  stage, 
has  also  considerable  effect,  as  causing  the  bit  and  curb- 
chain  to  take  hold  in  a  fresh  place.  A  cheek-rein  likewise 
is  sometimes  put  to  the  middle  link  of  the  curb-chain,  to 
retain  the  bit  in  the  middle  of  the  mouth,  and  to  keep  it 
alive,  as  it  is  termed. 

In  hard  pullers,  moreover,  putting  the  bearing-rein  to 
the  top,  and  the  coupling-  rein  to  the  lowest  loop  in  the  bit, 
creates  a  counter-action,  not  only  making  the  bit  more 
severe,  but  keeping  the  mouth  in  play.  A  hard  puller  is 
generally  safest,  and  more  in  place  before  the  bars  than  at 
wheel ;  for,  with  a  good  pair  of  wheel-horses,  leaders  are 
soon  checked,  and  he  pulls  less  with  a  free  than  with  a 
slack  partner. 


RELATIVE   PLACES   OF   HORSES.       211 

A  coach-horse,  if  obedient  to  the  hand,  cannot  well  car- 
ry his  head  too  high,  while  a  horse  that  goes  with  his  head 
down  has  a  mean  appearance  in  harness.  The  horse, 
however,  that  carries  his  head  higher  than  his  partner, 
should  have  his  coupling-rein  uppermost. 

A  coach-horse  should  not  be  broken  in  a  fast  coach,  as 
in  fast  work  there  is  no  time  to  try  his  temper,  and  to  hu- 
mor him.  By  being  put  at  iirst  into  quick  work,  many 
horses  get  a  habit  of  cantering,  and  never  trot  well  after- 
"  wards. 

A  kicking  wheel-horse  should  be  put  on  the  near  side 
where  he  is  less  liable  to  be  touched  by  anything  that 
might  annoy  him ;  for  on  the  off  side,  throwing  the  reins 
on  his  back,  or  touching  his  tail  when  getting  anything 
out  of  the  boot,  may  set  him  off,  and  cause  mischief.  A 
kicking  leader  should  have  a  ring  on  the  reins,  for  many 
accidents  arise  by  a  leader's  getting  a  rein  under  his  tail, 
owing  to  the  want  of  this.  With  first  rate  coach-men 
however,  this  precaution,  is  the  less  essential  that  they 
generally  have  their  horses  better  in  hand. 

With  horses  very  fresh  in  condition,  it  sometimes  hap" 
pens,  especially  in  a  turn,  that  a  wheeler  kicks  over  his 
trace,  and  an  accident  is  sometimes  the  consequence.  A 
light  hip-strap  prevents  this,  by  taking  the  trace  up  with 
him  when  he  rises.  In  London,  this  is  particularly  use- 
ful ;  for  when  horses  are  turning  short,  or  in  a  crowd,  they 
frequently  have  their  traces  slack,  and  therefore  more 
easily  kicked  over.  The  hip-strap  looks  slow,  but  it  is 
safe. 


Hi  DRIVING. 


COACHMEN. 


Of  late  years,  a  superior  class  of  men  form  our  coach- 
men ;  and  for  this  we  are  mainly  indebted,  first,  to  the  dri- 
ving clubs  and  the  notice  taken  of  coachmen  by  men  of 
fortune;  andsecondly,  to  the  boxesbeing  placed  on  springs. 
The  latter  renders  it  a  common  practice  for  passengers  to 
pay  an  extra  shilling  for  the  box-place,  whereas  formerly 
■\  man  would  have  given  something  to  be  anywhere  else. 

We  are  told  that  good  coachmen  are  becoming,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  number,  more  scarce  every  year,  because 
owing  to  the  fine  state  of  the  roads,  the  condition  of  the 
cattle,  and  the  improved  method  of  road-work,  coach- 
horses  are  so  above  their  work,  that  the  assistance  of  the 
driver  is  seldom  required.  When  in  town,  says  a  writer 
in  the  '  Sporting  Magazine,' I  sometimes  take  a  peep  at 
the  mails  coming  up  to  the  Gloucester  Coft'ee-house ;  and 
such  a  set  of  spoons  are,  I  should  hope,  difficult  to  be 
found;  they  are  all  legs  and  wings;  not  one  of  them  has 
his  horses  in  hand;  and  they  sit  on  their  boxes— as 
if  they  Avere  sitting  on  something  else. 

Certainit  is  that  coach-work  in  perfection  is  not  to  be 
seen  a  hundred  miles  from  the  metropolis,  seldom  so  far. 
The  build  of  coaches,  the  manufacture  of  harness,  and 
the  stamp  and  condition  of  horses,  are  greatly  inferior  in 
the  northern  counties  ;  and  as  to  the  coachmen,  few  that  at 
all  deserve  the  appellation. 

There  are  few  things  in  which  knowledge  of  an  art 
without  execution  is  of  less  value  than  in  driving  four-in 


COACHMEN.  213 

hand ;  for  although  a  coachman  may  have  knowledge,  it  is 
possible  that,  from  natural  awkwardness,  he  may  be  una- 
ble to  put  it  into  practical  effect  with  a  neat  and  appro- 
priate movement  of  his  arms  and  hands ;  and  seldom  is 
a  certain  propriety  and  neatness  more  required  than  in 
handling  the  reins  and  whip. 

To  make  a  man  a  good  driver,  there  is  one  requisite,' 
and  that  is,  what  are  called  on  the  road  '  hands,'  a  nice 
faculty  of  touch.  No  man  with  a  hard  heavy  hand  can 
ever  make  a  good  horseman  or  driver.  Neither  will  a 
nervous  man  ever  be  safe  on  a  coach-box,  for  presence  of 
mind  and  strong  nerve  are  there  very  often  called  into 
action. 

The  air  and  manner  of  a  coachman  have  been  cleverly 
described  by  some  periodical  writers.  Let  us,  say  they, 
suppose  the  horses  put  to  their  coach,  all  ready  for  a  start 
— the  reins  thrown  across  the  off  wheel-horse's  loins,  with 
the  ends  hanging  upon  the  middle  terret  of  his  pad,  and 
the  whip  thrown  across  the  backs  of  the  wheelers.— The 
coachman  makes  his  appearance.  If  he  be  a  coachman,  a 
judge  will  immediately  perceive  it ;  for  as  a  certain  phi- 
losopher observes, '  every  situation  in  life  serves  for  form- 
ation of  character,'  and  none  more  so  than  a  coachman's. 
I  was  going  to  say,  only  let  a  judge  see  him  come  out  of 
his  office,  pulling  on  his  glove  ;  but  this  I  will  say,  let  one 
see  him  walk  round  his  horses,  alter  a  coupling-rein, 
take  up  his  whip  and  reins,  and  mount  his  box,  and  he 
will  at  once  pronounce  him  a  neat,  or  an  awkward  one. — 
The  moment  he  has  got  his  seat  and  made  his  start,  you 
are  struck  with  the  perfect  mastership  of  his  art,  the  hand 


214  DRIVING. 

just  over  his  left  thigh,  the  arm  without  constraint,  steady 
and  with  a  holding  command,  that  keeps  his  horses  like 
clock-work,  yet,  to  a  superficial  observer,  with  reins  quite 
loose.  So  firm  and  compact  is  he,  that  you  seldom  observe 
any  shifting,  except  perhaps  to  take  a  shorter  purchase 
for  a  run  down  hill,  which  he  accomplishes  with  confi- 
dence and  skill  untinctured  with  imprudence. 

In  a  coachman,  temper  is  also  one  of  the  essentials  to  a 
good  workman.  We  are  told  of  a  great  artist,  that  hav. 
ing  four '  rum  ones'  to  deal  with,  and  being  unable  to  make 
them  work  to  please  him,  he  threw  the  reins  on  the  foot- 
board, and  exclaimed,  'Now  d — n  your  eyes,  divide  it 
amorf^  you,  for  I  will  be  troubled  with  you  no  longer.' 

The  impertinences  of  passengers  sometimes  increase 
this  irratability.  In  steam  vessels,  they  adopt,  the  plan  of 
writing  in  large  letters  on  the  wheel  which  directs  the 
helm.  'Do  not  talk  to  the. helmsman.'  It  would  be  as 
well  in  some  coaches  to  have  the  same  rule  adopted, '  Do 
not  babble  to  the  coachman.' 

It  is  not  possible  to  obtain  a  better  idea  of  a  good  coach- 
man than  from  the  following  account  of  one  who  is  said 
to  be  'the  first  coachman  in  England  for  bad  horses.' 
Having  all  his  life  had  moderate  horses,  some  strong  and 
heavy,  some  light  and  bloodlike,  old  hunters,  old  posters, 
most  of  the  teams  going  and  returning,  their  work  at  the 
utmost  stretch,  always  overpowering,  having  also  had  al- 
wa)^s.besides  difierence  in  character,  weak  horses  to  nurse, 
— this  ordeal  has  worn  him  down  to  a  pattern  of  patience. 
With  these,  and  great  weight  upon  severe  ground,  he  is 
c^teady,  easy,  very  economical  in  thong  and  chord,  very 


COACHMEN.  215 

light-handed  and  sometimes  even  playful.  I  observed  him 
closely,  and  discovered  from  his  remarks  as  well  as  from 
what  I  saw,  that  his  great  secret  of  keeping  his  nags  in 
anything  like  condition,  and  preserving  them  when  appa- 
rently worn  out,  is  by  putting  them  properly  together,  by 
constantly  shifting  their  situations,  and  by  the  use  of 
check  reins  with  remarkable  judgment,  by  which  means 
he  brings  their  powers  as  near  to  equality  as  possible,  be- 
sides preventing  the  evil  of  boring.  Indeed,  his  horses 
all  go  light  and  airy ;  and  though  at  times  his  hold  of  ne- 
cessity becomes  powerful,  yet  generally  speaking,  he  takes 
his  load  without  a  severe  strain  upon  his  arms.  I  own  it 
is  this  particular  knack  which  always  wins  me.  Both  in 
driving  and  riding,  give  me  the  man  who  can  accomplish 
his  object  with  a  light  hand.' 

The  duty  of  a  coachman  is  apt  to  injure  the  eyes,  par- 
ticularly in  cold  blowing  weather.  He  must  keep  his  eye 
forward ;  and  it  is  found  that  the  sight  cannot  be  fixed  up- 
on anything  be5'ond  the  head  of  the  wheel-horses  (not  so 
far  as  this  in  short  men)  without  raising  the  eyelids,  and 
consequently  exposing  the  eyes  to  the  weather. 

Six  parts  of  cold  spring  water  to  one  of  brandy,  is  a  good 
lotion  when  the  eyes  suffer  from  this  cause.  Coachmen 
should  also  preserve  their  feet  and  bodies  from  cold. 
In  very  cold  weather,  the  chin  should  be  protected  by  a 
shawl,  and  the  knees  by  thick  cloth  knee-caps.  In  very 
severe  weather,  the  breast  should  be  protected ;  for  which 
purpose  hareskins  are  now  manufactured,  and  are  getting 
into  use  on  the  road.     - 

A  coachman  ought  not  to  drive  more  than  seventy  miles 


216  DRIVING. 

a  day:  and  if  this  be  done  at  two  starts,  so  much  the  bel- 
ter. The  wearing  of  the  frame,  under  daily  excitement 
must  tend  to  produce  premature  old  age,  and  to  shorten 
life  ;  and  this  excitement  must  be  very  considerable  when 
a  man  drives  a  fast  coach  eighty  or  a  hundred  miles  a  day 
without  a  stop,  particularly  if  his  coach  be  strongly  op- 
posed. 

Coachmen  who  wish  to  keep  themselves  light,  take 
walking  exercise  in  their  hours  of  rest  from  road-work. 

As  to  amateur  coachmen,  it  has  been  observed,  that  if 
a  diet  were  formed,  before  whom  gentlemen-coachmen 
were  to  be  examined  previous  to  their  being  considered 
safe,  it  would  not  be  amiss  if  they  were  put  to  the  test  of 
having  the  harness  of  four  horses  taken  to  pieces,  strap 
from  strap,  and  then  requested  to  put  it  together  again  in 
the  presence  of  the  judges.  There  would  be  no  hesita- 
tion in  pronouncing  him  safe  who  succeeded  in  this,  as 
his  experience  on  the  road  must  have  been  considerable. 

How  these  amateurs  are  trusted  with  the  reins  coach- 
men are  now  obliged  to  be  careful,  owing  to  the  speed  of 
coaches  and  the  improved  breed  and  condition  of  coach- 
horses.  Hence,  we  see  fewer  amateurs  at  work  than  for- 
merly. It  would  indeed  be  highly  culpable  in  a  coach- 
man to  trust  the  lives  of  passengers  and  his  master's  prop- 
erty to  any  one  whom  he  did  not  know  to  be  safe,  or  feven 
without  reflecting  that  a  man  may  be  a  very  safe  coach- 
man with  horses  he  knows,  and  a  very  unsafe  one  on 
some  roads  with  horses  to  which  he  is  a  stranger. 

To  gentlemen  who  wish  to  drive,  and  are  really  capa- 
ble of  doing  so,  the  following  is  recommended  as  not  a 
very  bad  way  of  doing  business;—'  When  travelling  with 


\ 


COACHMEN.  217 

a  coachman  I  do  not  know,'  says  an  amateur,  'I  always 
adopt  the  following  plan — that  is,  if  I  wish  to  work.  In 
the  first  place,  I  never  got  upon  a  coach-box  yet  with  any- 
thing like  half-pay  about  me;  such  as  a  black  handker- 
chief around  my  neck,  or  in  blue  pantaloons;  neither  do 
I  think  I  ever  shall.  I  always  take  care  to  have  a  good 
deal  of  the  drag  about  me ;  a  neat  pair  of  boots,  and  knee 
caps,  if  cold  weather ;  a  good  drab  surtout,  if  not  a  poo- 
dle ,  a  benjamin  or  two  about  the  coach,  and  a  little  of  the 

spot  about  the  neck.  For  the  first  mile,  I  always  observe 
a  strict  silence,  unless  broken  by  coachee ;  but  at  this  time 

he  generally  runs  mute.  He  is  perhaps  but  just  awake 
oris  considering  about  his  way-bill,  reckoning  his  passen- 
gers, thinking  what  he  has  to  do  on  the  road,  and,  if  a 
workman,  looking  overhisteam  to  see  if  all  is  right.  Leave 
h  im  alone  for  a  short  time,  and  when  his  mind  is  at  ease 
he  will  look  you  over  as  you  sit  beside  him.  He  will  be- 
gin with  your  boots,  proceeding  upwards  to  the  crown  of 
your  hat.  and  if  he  like  you,  and  you  make  a  remark  or  two 
that  pleases  him,  and  shows  you  to  be  a  judge  of  the  art. 
the  first  time  he  stops  he  will  say, '  Now,  sir,  have  you  got 
yourdriving  gloves  on  1  would  you  like  to  take  'em  ?  '  I 
am  here  alluding  to  country  work,  and  not  to  the  roads 
near  London. 

Coachmen's  expenses  on  the  road  being  heavy,  should 
betaken  inio  consideration  by  passsengers.     They  have 

their  horse-keepers  to  pay  every  week,  or  they  will  not  do 
their  best  for  them ;  and  the  wear  and  tear  of  their  clothes  is  a 
heavy  tax  on  their  pockets.  They  are  satisfied,  however 
with  one  shilling  under,  and  two  shillings  for  anything 
over,    thirty  miles ;    and  they  are  well  entitled  to  that 


218  DRIVING. 

sum,  more  especially  when  we  recollect  that  they  are  lia- 
ble to  have  empty  coaches.  No  man,  certainly,  should 
give  them  less  than  a  shilling,  and  if  he  often  travel  the 
same  road,  his  money  is  not  ill-bestowed.  In  respectable 
coaches,  no  great  difference  is  now  m  ade  between  the  fees 
given  by  in  and  outside  passengers,  as  it  often  happens 
that  the  latter  are  best  able  to  pay. 

Guards  on  mail  coaches  are  necessary  appendages  to  the 
establishment ;  and,  that  they  may  be  equal  to  their  duty, 
they  go  only  moderate  distances,  as  from  sixty  to  eighty 
miles,  when  they  are  relieved  by  others.  Those  on  the 
long  stages,  however,  are  imposed  upon  by  their  masters  ; 
and,  by  being  made  to  do  more  than  they  are  equal  to- 
many  of  them  two  nights  up  for  one  in  bed,  are  half  their 
time  asleep.  Some  go  from  London  to  Exeter,  Shrews- 
bury, and  other  places  equally  distatnt,  without  stopping 
more  than  three  quarters  of  an  hour  on  the  road,  which,  in 
bad  weather  is  hard  enough.  Indeed,  it  is  wonderful  how 
with  their  means  they  always  contrive  to  live. 

Guards  are  by  no  means  useless  appendages  to  stage 
coaches ;  for  no  coach,  running  a  long  distance  and  in  the 
night,  should  be  without  one  ;  but  such  guards  should  be 
provided  with  fire-arms  in  good  repair.  Setting  aside  the 
idea  of  highway  robbery,  it  is  impossible  that,  in  the  night , 
a  coachman  can  see  to'the  luggage  on  his  coach, — nor  in- 
deed, can  the  guard,  if  he  be  asleep,  and  asleep  he  must  be 
great  part  of  his  time,  if  worked  in  the  way  above  stated. 
He  should  not  go  more  than  one  hundred  miles,  and  he 
should  be  paid  by  the  proprietors.  But  if  the  public  should 
not  be  left  to  pay  an  armed  guard,  it  is  monstrous  that 
they  should  pay  an  unarmed  one. 


i 


MOUNTING      AND      DISMOUNTING.  219 

As  to  mail-guards,  government  allows  them  only  a  mere 
pittance  of  a  few  shillings  a  week,  leaving  the  public  to 
pay  them  ;  whereas  the  public  have  nothing  to  do  with 
them,  and  it  is  the  most  impudent  imposition  that  these 
servants  of  government  should  be  paid  by  persons  travel- 
ling. That  they  carry  fire  arms  is  true ;  but  it  is  to  pro- 
tect the  letter-bags— property  which  govenrment  is  paid  to 
protect — that  they  would  use  these  arms,  and  not  on  ac- 
count of  passengers.  Strictly  speaking,  they  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  passengers,  nor  their  luggage  ;  their  sole 
duty  being  to  protect  the  mail.  As  therefore  government 
is  paid  for  carrying  the  mails,  government,  and  not  the 
public,  should  pay  the  persons  who  actually  do  protect 
them. 


MOUNTING  AND   DISMOUNTING. 

Before  getting  upon  the-box,  a  coachman  should  walk 
round  his  horses'  heads,  to  see  that  his  curb-chains  and 
coupling-reins  are  right,  and,  above  all,  that  the  tongues 
of  his  billet-buckles  are  secure  in  their  holes.  Many  acci- 
dents have  arisen  from  the  want  of  this  precaution.  No 
man  is  a  safe  coachman  who  does  not  see  to  these  things . 

Of  mounting  and  dismounting,  there  is  nothing  partic- 
lar  to  be  said ;  except  that,  in  the  former,  the  reins  are  of 
course  to  be  taken  in  the  left  hand,  as  they  are  afterv/ards 
to  be  held  in  driving. 


220  DRIVING. 


THE   SEAT, 


The  driver  should  sit  in  the  middle  of  the  box,  quite 
straight  towards  his  horses,  rather  upright  or  backward 
than  forward,  with  his  knees  nearly  straight,  and  with  his 
feet  together,  toward  the  edge  of  the  footboard.  With 
the  exception  of  a  pliant  motion  of  his  loins,  on  any  jolting 
of  the  coach,  his  body  should  be  quite  at  rest,  and  partic- 
ularly so  when  he  hits  a  horse. 

Independently  of  appearance,  a  firm  seat  on  a  box  is 
very  necessary  for  safety  to  a  coachman  and  his  passen- 
gers, for  a  trifle  will  otherwise  displace  him. 


THE  REIN-HOLD. 

As  driving  depends  Still  more  exclusively  than  riding 
on  the  mode  of  holding  and  managing  the  reins,  and  dif- 
fers from  it  cheifly  in  that  respect,  this  requires  the  first 
and  greatest  attention. 

The  REINS  FOR  ONE  HORSE  may  be  held  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  riding  with  snatfle  reins  alone,  namely,  entering 
the  hand  under  and  over  the  little  finger,  and  passing  out 
between  the  fore-finger  and  thumb ;  the  whip  being  held 
in  the  right  hand.  * 

The  reins  for  two  H0RSEs,wAe7i  these  are  properly  broke 
and  well  matched,  may  be  held  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
liding,  or  as  just  described  in  driving  one  horse. 

When,  however,  horses  are  not  well  broke,  or  are  ill  Ttmtch- 
ed,  the  off  rein  may  enter  above  and  the  near  rein  below 
the  fore-finger,  and  both  hang  down  through  the  hands,  of 


^ 


THE      REIN-HOLD.  221 

which  the  back  is  turned  slightly  downward.  This  greatly 
facilitates  the  guidance  and  adjustment  of  the  reins.— 
(Plate  XLIV.  Figure  1).— In  this  case,  the  whip  is  held 
with  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  and  thumb  of  the  righ^ 
hand;  and  the  first  and  second  fingers  of  that  hand  are 
used  to  pull  in  any  rein  which  may  require  it.— (Plate 
XLIV.  Figure  2). 

The  reins  for  four  horses  are  in  general  best  held  in 
the  latter  way— so  far  as  it  goes,  on  account  of  the  facili- 
ties of  guidance  and  adjustment  which  it  bestows.  In 
this  case,  the  off  rein  of  the  leaders  is  held  between  the 
.first  finger  andthumb ;  the  near  one, between  the  first  and 
second  fingers;  the  ofi"  rein  of  the  wheelers  also  between 
the  first  and  seco  nd  fingers,  but  under  the  former ;  and  the 
near  rein  of  the  whe  elers,  between  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers.  The  whip  is  of  course  held  as  in  the  latter  case 
of  driving  a  pair  of  horses. — (Plate  XLIV.  Figure  3). 

Perhaps  in  all  cases,  this  latter  mode  of  holding  the  reins  is 
preferable ;  but  the  reader,  being  now  informed  of  every 
mode  of  holding  the  reins,  may  vary  this  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. 

It  is  seldom  we  meet  with  a  coachman  who  drives  with 
what  is  called  a  full  hand.  In  this  case,  every  rein  passes 
singly  through  the  fingers. 

With  long  wheel  reins,  there  is  one  advantage  in  this 
method — a  wheeler's  rein  is  not  covered  by  a  leader's ; 
but  this  is  generally  thought  to  be  more  than  counterbal- 
anced by  the  comparilively  trifling  power  a  man  has  in 
his  little  finger,  which  must  chiefly  manage  the  other 
leader's  rein. 


'^iW  '  DRIVING. 

In  holding  the  reins,  as  little  motion  of  the  arm  should 
be  observed  as  possible,  and  they  should  be  shifted,  when 
necessary,  with  the  gentlest  motion,  and  apparently  with 
no  difficulty. 

When  four  horses  are  to  be  restrained  at  once,  most 
coachmen  draw  all  the  reins  through  their  fingers  at  the 
same  time  ;  and  here  the  horses'  mouths  are  lost.  The 
coachman  should  change  hands  by  opening  the  fingers  of 
the  right  hand  and  putting  the  reins  into  them,  about  two 
inches  before  his  left  hand,  and  should  then  cake  them  up 
again  with  his  left,  by  passing  it  beyond  his  right.  By  this 
means  the  horses'  mouths  are  not  lost. 


The  correspondence  and  the  guidance  have  already 
been  more  amply  detailed  under  'Riding,'  than  is  neces- 
sary for  the  purpose  of  driving. 


STARTING. 

Before  starting,  four  horses  should  stand  clear,  or  at 
their  proper  length  from  each  other. 

Horses  should  have  some  notice— a  click,  or  a  whistle, 
given  them  to  move. 

If  the  whip  is  used,  the  wheelers  shoutd  be  touched,  as  gen- 
erally the  ablest  horses. 

As  it  is  with  coach-horses  as  with  mankind— that  the 
physical  strength  is  in  the  governed,  they  must  be  humor- 
ed a  little,^  When  starting,  the  coachman  must  not  pull  at 
their  heads,  but  must  feel  their  mouths  lightly,  or  they 


STARTING.  223 

may  bolt,  throw  themselves  down,  or  break  through  their 
harness. 

If  horses  are  old,  and  the  stage  commences  with  a  de- 
scent, they  should  be  allowed  to  go  a  couple  of  hundred 
yards  before  they  are  put  to  their  usual  pace. 

A  young  horse  should  be  started  very  quietly,  making 
the  old  horse  take  collar  first  This  is  is  especially  neces- 
sary if  the  young  one  is  inclined  to  be  hot,  as  it  will  pre- 
vent his  plunging. 

The  young  horse's  first  time  of  starting  should  be  in  a 
wide  space,  so  that  it  maybe  any  way  he  pleases,  without 
a  check.  If  he  be  alarmed,  and  inclined  to  bounce,  he 
should  not  be  held  hard,  and  still  less  stopped  ;  for  if  so 
he  may  not  like,  particularly  if  highmettled,  to  start  again 
The  old  horse  will  prevent  his  running  far. 

If  a  young  horse  be  shy  of  his  collar,  he  should  not  at 
first  be  pressed  to  it,  as  he  may  thereby  take  a  dislike  to 
ii,  and  become  a  jibber. 

A  young  horse,  when  first  put  to  a  coach,  should  be 
turned  to  the  pole  very  carefully,  to  prevent  its  touching 
his  hind  quarter,  which  might  make  him  kick. 

When  he  has  been  driven  long  enough  to  be  steady,  he 
should  be  taken  up  in  his  bearing  rein,  put  down  lower 
on  his  bit,  and  driven  in  a  wide  circle,  or  figure  eight — 
keeping  the  inner  horse  well  up  to  his  collar  and  bit. 

In  breaking,  he  should  be  frequently  stopped,  but  not 
held  after  being  pulled  up,  as,if  high  mettled,  it  will  make 
him  restless,  and  if  dull,  he  does  not  reouire  it. 


224  DRIVING. 

If,  Oil  the  contrary ,  a  young  horse  is  heavy,  and  not 
ready  to  start  when  the  command  is  given,  he  should  be 
whipped  till  he  answer  it. 


THE   PACES. 

These,  in  driving,  must  always  be  a  walk  or  a  trot— 
never  a  canter,  wnich.  owing  to  the  draft,  would  be  equally 
injurious  to  the  horse  and  to  the  carriage. 

Either  of  these  paces,  moreover,  should  be  sidted  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  road.  Rapid  driving,  on  the  stones  especially 
exposes  a  carriage  to  injury,  both  from  shocks  against 
others,  and  from  those  which  attend  its  own  motion. 

Rapid  driving,  however,  is  sometimes  for  a  moment 
necessary,  in  order  to  get  out  of  way  of  the  caits,  wag- 
gons, &c. 

In  public  coaches,  the  pace  is  often  too  rapid ;  and, 
should  any  passenger  plead  for  the  horses,  on  the  score  of 
the  excessive  heat,  the  coachman,  with  the  utmost  sang 
froid,  replies  that  he  must  keep  his  time,  although  the  pro- 
babilty  sometimes  is,  that  one  or  more  of  them  may  drop, 
by  which  considerable  time  would  be  lost,  as  well  as  re- 
duction in  iorce  ensue  for  the  rest  of  the  stage. 

Horses  should  be  more  frequently  watered  during  hot 
weather  than  they  generally  are  :  increased  perspiration 
renders  it  necessary. 

However  well  pleased  thoughtless  people  may  be  at 
going  at  an  accelerated  rate,  it  is  certainly  hard  that  other 
passengers  should  be  obliged  to  hazard  their  existence  at 


T  HE      TIME.  225 

the  pleasure  of  a  reckless  driver,  who  in  answer  to  all  re- 
monstrance, coolly  answers,  he  must  'keep  his  time.' 
Something  should  certainly  be  done  to  prevent  the  canter- 
ing system  ;  for  no  coach,  be  it  ever  so  well  built,  can  pre- 
serve its  equilibrium  so  well  when  the  horses  are  in  the 
canter  or  gallop,  as  when  in  the  trot. 

At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that,  at  the 
rate  our  coaches  now  travel,  some  slight  degree  of  it  may, 
sometimes  be  unavoidable,  owing  to  horses  trotting  so  va- 
riably, and  its  being  very  difficult  to  obtain  teams  every 
individual  of  which  shall  be  able  to  trot  through  the  dis- 
tance at  the  required  rate. 

In  driving  four-in-hand,  it  is  not  every  man  who  knows 
when  a  coach-horse  is  at  work  ;  as  a  horse  may  keep  a 
tight  trace,  and  yet  be  doing  little.  There  is,  however, 
an  increased  tension  of  the  horse's  frame  when  taking 
weight  with  him,  which  is  the  surest  test,  and  which  nev- 
er escapes  a  quick  and  experienced  eye. 

As  already  observed,  those  called  lobbing-goers  take 
greater  weight  with  them  than  horses  of  finer  action,  pro- 
vided they  are  equally  close  workers.  Heavy  draught 
shortens  the  stride  of  horses,  after  they  have  been  a  few 
vears  at  work. 


In  short  distances,  to  know  precisely  at  vjhat  time  it  is 
necessary  to  start,  to  arrive  at  any  place  at  a  certain  hour,  the 
driver  has  only  to  ascertain  the  distance,  and  to  regulate 
the  pace  by  the  following  table, 
15 


'^'^(i  DRIVING. 

4  miles  an  hour  1  mile  in  15  minutes. 

5  ditto  12 

6  ditto  10 

7  ditto      81-2 

8  ditto      7 1-2 

9  ditto  6 
10  ditto  6 

In  the  streets  of  London,  10  minutes  at  least,  in  every 
hour,  must  be  allowed  for  stoppages. 


'  We  are  too  apt,'  said  the  late  Lord  Erskine,  '  to  con- 
sider animals  under  the  domination]  of  man  in  no  view 
but  that  of  property.  We  shouldnever  forget,  that  the  ani- 
mal over  which  we  exercise  our  power  has  all  the  organs 
which  render  it  susceptible  of  pleasure  and  pain.  It  sees,  it 
hears,  it  smells,  it  tastes,  it  feels  with  acuteness.  How 
mercifully,  tken,  ought  we  toexercise  the  dominion  entrus- 
ted to  our  care .?' 

Speaking  to  coach-horses  from  the  box  is  now  considered 
slow,  but  it  is  not  without  its  effect.  Whipping,  however, 
is  sometimes  indespensable. 

The  manufacture  of  four-horse  whips  has  arrived  at 
great  perfection,  and  affords  employment  to  many  hundred 
hands. 

Refined  management  of  the  whip  is  not  of  many  years 
birth ;  and  even  now  there  are  but  few  who  execute  this 
effectually  and  with  grace. 


THE      WHIP.  227 

There  as  are  many  ways  for  whipping  coach-horses,  says 
a  clever  writer  in  the  'Sporting  Magazine,' as  there  are 
horses  in  the  coach ;  and,  as  there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong 
way  of  doing  most  things,  a  young  beginner  may  observe 
the  following  directions — beginning  with  the  wheel-hor.s- 
es. 

Before  a  coachman  hits  a  wheel-horse,  he  should  twist 
his  thong  three  times  round  the  crop  of  his  whip— holding 
the  crop  at  that  moment  somewhat  horizontally,  by  which 
means  the  thong  will  twist  towards  the  thin  end  of  the 
crop—when  the  thong,  being  doubled,  will  not  exceed  the 
length  of  a  pair-horse  thong,  and  in  some  measure  resem- 
ble it.  Its  being  double,  renders  it  of  course  more  severe, 
by  falling  more  heavily  on  the  horse  ;  and  by  the  two  ends 
of  the  thong  not  being  spread,  but  close  together  at  the 
time  of  the  blow,  it  falls  with  increased  force. 

When  the  off-side  wheeler  is  struck,  the  coachman'^ 
right  arm  should  be  put  out  from  his  body  in  the  same  po- 
sition in  which  he  presents  it  to  his  tailor  to  measure  him 
for  a  coat,  but  the  blow  should  proceed  entirely  from  the 
wrist.  The  part  on  which  the  horse  should  be  struck  is 
about  four  inches  behind  his  false  belly-band,  or  some- 
where near  the  short  rib  on  his  right  side.  The  stinginff 
part  of  the  blow  is  then  felt  under  the  belly ;  and,  unless  a 
horse  is  quite  beaten,  or  of  a  sulky  and  bad  disposition,  he 
seldom  fails  to  answer  it.  If  he  do  not  answer  it  here,  he 
must  be  struck  before  the  belly-band,  when  the  blow  falls 
just  behind  the  fore-arm  on  a  part  on  Avhich  the  skin  is 
very  thin. 

In  hitting  a  near-wheeler,  the  coachman  brings  his  right 


2*28  DRIVING. 

hand  exactly  opposite  to  his  face,  and,  turning  the  crop 
three  turns  around,  as  before  directed,  he  lets  the  thong 
fall  sharply  across  the  horse's  loins  three  times  in  succes- 
.sion,  if  he  do  not  answer  sooner,  observing  that,  after  the 
third  blow,  he  draws  the  thong  obliquely  across  the  horse's 
back,  by  which  means  his  arm  returns  to  a  state  of  rest, 
and  the  crop  falls  gently  across  his  reins,  just  about  his  left 
iiand— the  crop  pointing  a  little  upward  to  prevent  the 
tliong  getting  under,  or  touching,  the  near  wheel-horse's 
tatil. 

Should  the  latter  be  the  case,  if  the  driver  lower  his  crop, 
the  thong  will  almost  always  get  released ;  but  should  it 
not,  he  must  let  the  thong  loose,  and  draw  it  out  from  the 
point.  When  it  conges  up  from  the  tail,  let  the  coach- 
man throw  back  his  crop  a  little  to  his  right  hand,Jandthe 
point  of  the  thong  will  fall  across  his  fingers,  when  he 
catches  it,  and  puts  it  back  into  his  hand.  It  must  be  ob- 
served, that,  in  striking  the  near  wheel-horse,  the  wrist 
only,  as  in  sword  exercise,  is  at  work;  the  body  must  be 
())uite  at  rest ;  and  after  the  whip  is  brought  to  bear,  the 
arm  must  be  quiet  also,  until  the  third  blow  is  struck. 

There  is  only  one  other  method  of  hitting  a  wheel-horse 
which  is  called  pointing  him.  This  is  done  by  hitting 
him  with  the  point  of  the  thong,  when  loose,  just  behind 
his  shoulders,  but  it  is  not  considered  neat  execution.  If 
there  should  be  a  free  leader  before  the  bars,  it  causes 
him  to  fret,  and  is  only  to  be  had  recourse  to  in  emergen- 
cies— as,  lor  instance,  in  turning  round  a  corner,  or  into 
a  gateway,  when  a  leader  is  to  be  hit,  and  before  the  coach- 
man can  recover  his  thong  a  wheel-horse  requires  whip- 
ping also. 


THE      WHIP,  229 

If  a  wheel-horse  shew  symptoms  of  vice,  as  a  disposi- 
tion to  kick,  &c.,  or,  in  short^if  he  refuse  lo  answer  either 
of  the  other  calls  upon  his  exertions,  a  blow  with  the  double- 
thong  on  his  ears  generally  brings  him  to  his  senses. 
Without  great  necessity  however,  it  is  very  reprehensible 
to  strike  a  coach-horse  over  the  ears — the  parts  being  very 
sensible. 

It  is  generally  supposed  it  is  in  whipping  a  leader  that 
neatness  of  execution  is  more  especially  displayed.  It  is 
however,  quite  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  it  is  in  the  power 
of  a  coachman  to  punish  a  leader  with  the  single,  as  he  can 
a  wheel-horse  with  the  double  thong.  No  doubt,  however, 
the  blow  from  the  loose  thong  falls  very  sharp,  as  it  falls 
on  a  tender  part — the  inside  of  the  thigh. 

As  the  oflf-leader  presents  himself  more  fully  to  the  right 
hand  of  the  coachman  than  his  partner  does,  the  horse 
that  is  the  less  free  of  the  two  is  generally  put  on  that  side. 
There  are  but  two  ways  of  hitting  an  off-leader:  one  by 
letting  the  thong  fall  gently  over  his  neck,  or  just  behind 
his  pad,  when  his  driver  merely  wishes  to  refresh  his 
memory,  and  let  him  know  that  he  has  a  whip  in  his  hand; 
and  the  other,  when  he  wants  to  hit  him  sharply,  by  strik- 
ing him  with  the  point  of  the  thong  just  under  his  bar. 
The  hard  hitters  of  the  old  school  never  conceived  they 
had  done  the  latter  effectually,  unless  they  struck  their 
horse  twice  at  least,  if  not  three  times, — the  last  stroke  al- 
ways ending  in  a  draw. 

As  this  word  '  draw '  is  peculiar  to  the  road,  it  must  be 
explained  to  such  as  may  not  exactly  comprehend  it.  Sup- 
pose a  coachman  to  hit  his  off-leader  three  times.    The 


230  •  DRIVING. 

two  first  blows  are  given,  as  it  were,  underhanded— that  is 
^0  say,  the  hand  is  lowered  so  as  to  admit  of  the  thong  go- 
ing under  the  bar  the  first  two  strokes.  AVhen  the  third 
or  last  is  given,  the  point  of  the  elbow  is  thrown  outwards, 
so  as  to  incline  the  thong  inwards,  Avhich  brings  it  up  to 
the  coachman's  hand  after  the  stroke — it  generally  falling 
across  his  breast,  which  would  not  be  the  case  were  it  not 
for  the  draw.  Another  advantage  also  attends  the  draw: 
a  thong  so  thrown  very  seldom  hangs  in  the  bars,  and  noth- 
ing is  more  uncoachman-like  than  to  hit  a  leader  above 
his  bar.  A  horse's  mouth  should  always  be  felt  before  his 
coachman  hits  him. 

Hitting  the  near-leader  with  neatness  and  effect  is  the 
most  difficult  part  of  the  use  of  the  whip.  There  are  two 
Avaj's  of  doing  it :  one,  by  two  common  strokes  and  the 
draw;  and  the  other  by  a  sort  of  back-handed  stroke, 
which  is  a  very  neat  one,  and  sufficiently  severe,  but  it 
does  not  bring  the  thong  so  immediately  up  to  the  coach- 
man's hand  as  the  drawn  stroke  does.  In  the  back-handed 
stroke,  the  wrist  describes  an  exact  figure  eight,  and  the 
arm  cannot  be  kept,  as  before,  quite  still.  In  the  other 
method  of  hitting,  the  coachman's  arm  is  brought  about 
opposite  his  chin,  the  two  first  blows  proceeding  from  the 
wrist  alone  ;  but,  in  the  third,  or  the  draw,  the  hand  de- 
scends, the  elbow  is  thrown  outwards,  and  by  two  jerks  of 
the  arm,  which  it  is  difficult  todescribe  on  paper,  the  draw 
is  effected,  and  the  thong  comes,  as  before  stated,  across 
the  coachman's  breast,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  catch  it  in- 
stantly. 

There  is  one  other  way  of  hitting  a  leader;  and  that  is 


THE      WHIP.  '^Ol 

by  what  is  called  the  chop.  This  is  done  by  throwing  out 
the  right  arm  rather  forward,  and  with  it,  of  course,  the 
tliong,  and  then  bringing  it  back  sharply  with  the  wrist  in- 
clined downwards.  The  thong  falls  severely  on  the 
horse'sthigh,andcomesup  to  the  hand  again,  as  in  the 
draw.  This  is  a  very  useful  blow  in  a  narrow  confined 
place,  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  lose  no  time  before  a 
leader  is  hit ;  and  when  neatly  done,  has  a  very  workman- 
like appearance.  This  blow  generally  falls  above  the 
bar,  particularly  if  a  horse  is  not  at  work  at  the  time. 

It  has  been  said  that  leaders  should  always  be  hit 
under  their  bar.  This  however,  cannot  always  be  done ; 
for  if  a  horse  hang  back  from  his  collar,  his  bar  is  so  low 
that  ii  may  be  difficult  to  get  under  it.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, the  blow  is  made  to  tell  smartly,  as  it  is  in  the  coach- 
man's power  to  throw  his  whip  into  the  flank,  which  is  a 
very  sensible  part.  When  a  leader  is  well  up  to  his  col- 
lar, he  always  can,  and  always  should  be,  hit  under  his  bar. 

Should  the  point  of  the  thong  catch,  or  as  they  say  on 
the  road,  '  get  hanged,'  in  the  bars  or  the  pole-pieces,  nei- 
ther of  which  it  will  do  when  properly  dra^\^l  after  the 
last  stroke,  as  the  inclination  of  the  hand  in  the  act  of 
drawing  enables  it  to  clear  them,  no  violence  should  be 
u'^ed  to  loosen  it,  or  a  broken  crop  be  the  consequence. 
On  the  contrary,  the  arm  should  be  thro^vI^  forward,  and 
the  thong  lightly  moved,  when  in  a  minute  or  two  it  will 
shake  out.  Should  it  be  fast  between  tne  eye  of  the  main 
bar  and  the  pole-hook,  the  leaders  should  be  eased  a  little, 
and  it  will  get  released.  Sometimes,  however,  on  a  wet 
day,  a  thong  will  lap  round  some  of  these  things  so  fast,  as 


232  DRIVING. 

to  make  it  necessary  for  the  guard  or  some  person  to  get 
down  to  untie  it.  This  is  technically  called  having  a  bite. 
The  double  thong  will  also  sometimes  hitch  in  the  ends 
of  the  wheelers'  traces,  as  also  in  the  point  of  the  false 
belly-band.  To  obviate  this,  in  gentleman's  harness,  these 
parts  are  always  covered,  or  piped,  as  it  is  called. 

A  free  leader  should  not  be  hit  in  a  short  turn,  or  he  may 
breakhis  bar,  perhaps  the  pole-hook,  or  even  the  main-bar. 
Neither  shouldleadersbe  hit  in  going  over  a  small  bridge 
which  is  much  raised,  or  when  the  pole  points  upwards, 
as  their  draught  on  the  end  of  it  may  snap  it  in  the  futch- 
els. 

Some  drivers  perpetually  whip  or  fan  their  horses,  which 
first  irritates,  and  afterwards  injures  them,  by  rendering 
them  insensible  to  the  proper  aids  or  correction.  It  must 
be  observed,  that  the  whip  should  never  be  used  but  in 
case  of  necessity.  Indeed,  one  of  the  best  proofs  of  a  good 
coachman  is  to  see  his  right  arm  still;  and  although,  lor 
the  safety  of  his  coach,  he  ought  to  be  able  to  punish  a 
horse  when  he  requires  punishment,  yet  he  should,  on  all 
accounts,  be  as  sparing  of  it  as  he  can.  Horses  may  be 
whipped  till  they  become  callous  to  whipping,  and  there- 
fore slow.  In  the  condition  in  which  coach  horses  are 
now  kept,  a  pound  of  Nottingham  whipcord  will  last  a  good 
coachman  his  lifetime.  The  very  act  of  throwing  the 
point  of  the  thong  over  the  leaders' heads,  or  letting  it  fall 
on  their  backs,  as  a  fisherman  throws  his  fly  upon  the 
stream,  will  set  half  the  coach-horses  in  England,  in  these 
days  into  a  gallop. 


233 


THOROUGHFARES,   PASSING,  ETC 

The  driver  should  avoid  passing  through  the  great  tho- 
roughfares, and  prefer  the  widest  of  the  less  frequented 
streets  which  run  parallel  to  them. 

In  London  he  should  never  go  into  the  City  through  the 
Strand,  Fleet-street,  and  Cheapside,  between  twelve 
and  five  o'clock,  if  he  can  possibly  avoid  it,  as  these  streets 
are  then  crowded  with  every  kind  of  vehicle. 

He  should  also  avoid  going  into  the  Ciiy  about  midday, 
on  Mondays  and  Fridays,  on  account  of  the  droves  of  oxen 
passing  through  the  principal  streets. 

The  middle  of  the  road  is  safest,  especially  for  a  loaded 
coach — except  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

In  driving  four  horses,  to  keep  them  well  in  hand  is  a 
most  material  point,  both  as  regards  their  work,  and  for 
the  safety  of  the  coach.  The  track  made  by  a  coach  in 
descending  a  hill  shows  whether  horses  are  properly  held 
together  or  not.  Accidents  from  horses  taking  fright,  and 
bolting  across  the  road,  happen  only  to  clumsy  fellows,  of 
whom  the  list  is  considerable. 

The  rules  for  passing  and  meeting  carriages  on  the  road 
ha/e  already  been  given,  yet  there  are  times  when  they 
need  not  be  strictly  adhered  to,  and  alittle  accommodation 
becomes  expedient.  Thus,  if  one  coachman  has  the  hill 
in  his  favor,  that  is,  if  he  be  going  down,  and  a  loaded 
coach  be  coming  up  at  the  same  time,  he  who  is  descend- 
ing, if  he  can  do  it  with  safety ,  ought  to  give  the  hardest 
side  of  the  road  to  the  other  coachman. 


if*. 


234  DRIVING. 

As  to  narrow  spaces,  it  is  evident  that  where  the  bars  can 
go  the  coach  can  go,  as  they  are  wider  than  the  wheels  ; 
and  consequently,  if  they  are  cleared,  all  is  safe.  The 
swing-bar  is  an  excellent  invention,  as  a  horse  works  in  it 
from  either  shoulder,  and  therefore  quite  at  his  ease. 

A  sharp  and  experienced  driver  may  calculate  exactly 
the  space  sulhcient  to  pass  between  two  bodies  at  rest,  and 
may  therefore  pass  with  confidence  and  at  his  ease. 

As  however,  in  streets,  he  must  meet  many  carriages 
driven  by  inexperienced  or  intoxicated  fellows,  who  do  not 
for  amoment  move  in  any  direct  line,hemust  allow  them 
ample  room,  and  proceed  icith  the  utmost  caution. 

A  driver  must,  therefore,  be  incessantly  on  the  lookout, 
must  watch  every  vehicle  that  approaches,  and  must  give 
it  more  room  thanit  may  seem  to  require. 


ASCENDING  AND   DESCENDING.    ' 

In  GOING  UP  mLL,  it  is  in  general  best  to  trot  up  at  first, 
and  to  u'alk  aftervmrds. 

In  GOING  DOWN  HILL,  it  is  bcst  to  keep  the  wheelers  tight  in 
hand,  to  let  the  leaders  just  clear  the  bars,  and  to  come  gently 
doivyi. 

In  the  latter  case,  a  turn  of  the  reins  of  the  wheel-hors- 
es may  be  made  round  the  little  finger. — (Plate  XLV. 
Figure  4). 

Although,  however,  it  may  be  necessary  to  catch  up 
wheel-horses,  and  make  them  hold  back  their  coach 
down  hill,  there  is  nothing  in  which  a  light  finger  is  more 
essential  to  safety.    The  manner  in  which  some  persons 


ASCENDING      AND      DESCENDING.  235 

haul  at  horses'  mouths  when  descending  with  a  load  con- 
siderably adds  to  the  difficulty,  by  trying  the  strength  of 
the  tackle.  But  this  is  not  all;  these  persons  should  be 
aware  that  all  this  force  employed  on  the  horses'  mouths 
is  so  much  added  to  the  pressure  of  the  coach  ;  in  pro- 
portion to  it  is  that  pressure  increased.  The  horses  are 
then  drawing  by  their  heads ! 

The  objections  to  a  locked  wneel,  with  atop-heavy  load 
have  already  been  stated.  If  however,  with  a  heavy  load 
and  upon  a  smooth  hard  road,  a  wheel  must  be  locked,  it 
should  be  that  next  a  ditch,  or  other  dangerous  part.  In 
going  down  hill,  a  coach  always  strikes  on  the  side  on 
which  the  wheel  is  not  locked.  The  coachman  should 
therefore  keep  as  much  as  possible  on  that  side  of  the 
road  on  which  the  wheel  is  locked:  by  crossing  the  road, 
if  he  meet,  or  have  to  pass,  anything,  the  coach  will  not 
strike ;  and  by  holding  that  way,  at  any  time,  it  will  pre- 
vent overturning.  The  coach  naturally  strikes  in  a  di- 
rect line  from  the  perch-bolt. 

The  generality  of  passengers  know  not  the  danger  of 
galloping  a  coach  with  three  tons  weight  in  and  out,  down 
hill,  at  the  rate  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  an  hour,  with 
no  wheel  locked,  the  w^hole  resistance  of  the  wheel-hors- 
es depending  on  a  small  leather  strap  and  buckle  at  the 
top  of  the  hames,  these  coachmen  deeming  it  beneath 
their  dignity  to  drive  with  breechings.  Even  thus,  how- 
ever, accidents  would  be  much  less  frequent,  if  coachmen 
took  the  precaution  of  pulling  up  their  horses  short  when 
on  the  point  of  descending.  In  night  work,  this  is  doub- 
ly useful,  because  it  often  happens  that  a  pole-chain  is  un- 


236  DRIVING. 

hooked,  or  a  hame-strap  gets  loose,  without  being  discern- 
ible by  lamp  or  moon  light. 

*  With  wheel-horses  that  will  hold  back  at  all,  I  will 
be  bound,'  says  a  clever  writer  and  experienced  coach- 
man, '  to  take  a  loaded  coach  down  most  of  the  hills  now 
met  with  on  our  great  roads,  without  a  drag-chain,  provi- 
ded I  am  allowed  to  pull  up  my  horses  at  the  top,  and  let 
them  take  it  quietly  the  first  hundred  yards.  This  it  may 
be  said,  would  be  losing  time  ;  but  on  the  contrary,  time 
would  be  gained  by  it ;  for  as  soon  as  I  perceived  I  was 
master  of  my  coach,  I  should  let  her  go,  and  by  letting 
my  horses  loose  at  the  bottom,  I  could  spring  them  into  a 
gallop,  and  cheat  them  out  of  half  the  hill,  if  there  were 
one  (as  frequently  happens)  on  the  next  portion  of  road. 
This  advantage,  it  must  be  recollected,  cannot  be  taken, 
if  the  chain  be  to  be  put  on;  and  I  have  therefore  in  my 
favor  all  the  time  required  to  put  that  chain  on,  and  to 
take  it  off  again.' 

There  are,  however,  some  horses  which  no  man  can 
make  to  hold  a  loaded  coach  down  hill.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion are,  first,  the  stiff-necked  one,  as  he  is  called,  who 
turns  his  head  away  from  his  partner,  and  shoulders  the 
pole  ;  and,  secondly,  one  who,  when  he  feels  the  weight 
pressing' upon  him,  begins  to  canter  or  jump,  as  coachmen 
term  it;  when  holding  back  properly  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. With  such  cattle,  the  drag-chain  must  be  had  re- 
course to ;  as  well  as  when  there  is  the  least  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  soundness  of  the  harness. 

All  this  confirms  the  necessity  of  checking  the  force  of 
a  coach  before  descending  a  steep  hill,  and  indeed  in  some 


ASCENDING      AND      DESCENDING.  237 

cases— as  with  bad  holders— before  coming  upon  a  slight- 
descent.  The  term  which  coachmen  have  for  this  spe- 
cies of  road,  is  'pushing  ground; '  and  if  the  fall  be  long 
it  is  astonishing  how  the  pressure  of  a  loaded  coach  upon 
wheel-horses  is  increased  before  getting  to  the  bottom  of 
it,  and  how  difficult  it  would  be,  with  wheelers  not  of  the 
very  best  stamp,  to  pull  up  short,  if  any  accident  should 
happen. 

Young  coachmen,  in  descending  a  hill,  should  take 
care  that  their  leaders  do  not  draw  on  the  end  of  the  pole 
which  many  free  ones  do  when  they  find  the  coach  com- 
ing quickly  after  them ;  for  this  not  only  increases  the 
pressure  of  the  coach  on  the  wheelers,  but  should  either 
of  them  stumble,  it  must  assist  in  bringing  him  down. 

The  following  good  and  characteristic  directions  were 
given  by  a  very  experienced  coachman,  to  a  gentleman 
who  undertook  to  take  his  coach  a  journey  for  him,  but 
who,  although  he  knew  the  road  well,  had  never  driven 
on  it  before,  '  That  middle  twelve  miles  of  ground,'  said 
he,  '  is  a  punisher,  and  you, must  mind  what  you  are  at 
with  this  load.  You  have  two  hills  to  go  down,  and  three 
to  go  up,  in  the  first  seven  miles.  Do  n't  stop  to  put  the 
chain  on,  as  they  '11  hold  well,  and  the  tackle  is  good; 
and  do  n't  let  them  walk  up  the  hills,  for  they  are  bad 
hands  at  that,  you  will  lose  a  horse's  draught  by  it,  and 
perhaps  get  hung  up  on  one  of  them.  You  must  take 
fifty  minutes  to  do  the  first  seven  miles,  and  good  work  too. 
When  you  get  to  the  top  of  the  last  hill,  get  dowm  and  put 
your  near  leader  to  the  cheek,  and  they  '11  toddle  you 
over  the  last  five  miles  in  half  an  hour  with  all  the  pleas- 
ure alive.' 


238 


THE   TURNINGS. 


These  must  be  regulated  by  the  ground. 

A  good  driver  avoids  all  sharp  and  quick  turnings.  In 
town,  it  is  much  better  to  drive  on  a  little  further,  where 
another  street  may  allow    the    ample  room  requisite    in 


If  a  carriage  do  not  pass  quite  across  a  channel  without 
turning,  the  perch  must  be  twisted  according  to  the  de- 
scent, because  one  wheel  falls  as  that  at  the  opposite  an- 
gle rises.  By  such  a  wrench,  especially  when  going  fast, 
the  main  or  perch  bolt  is  frequently  broken  and  every  part 
strained. 

A  loaded  coach  should  never  be  turned  short,  even  at  a 
slow  pace,  for  the  coach  is  never  safe  when  there  is  not 
an  even  bearing  on  the  transom  beds.  If  turned  short,  at 
a  quick  pace,  the  higher  and  looser  part  of  a  coach  must 
go  over,  because  all  bodies  put  in  motion  by  one  power 
will  proceed  in  a  straight  line,  unless  compelled  to  change 
their  course  by  some  force  impressed.  Hence  a  horse  at 
full  speed  is  with  difficulty  turned  to  right  or  left ;  and  if 
he  turn  suddenly,  and  of  his  own  accord,  he  puts  his  ri- 
der's horsmanship  to  the  test.  So  with  a  coach,  a  sudden 
turn  to  one  side  the  road  allows  the  body  to  swag  towards 
the  other,  and  the  centre  of  gravity  is  lost. 

In  a  turn,  a  coachman  must  point  his  leaders  well,  that 
is,  take  proper  ground  for  them  to  make  the  turn,  and  let 
his  wheelers  follow  them.  Moreover,  as  wheel  horses  are 
always  in  haste  to  make  the  turn,  the  driver  must  shoot 
them  out  on  the  opposite  side,  just  as  he  has  pointed  his 
leaders.    Thus  if  the  turn  be  to  the  right,  he  must  catch 


up  his  near  wheel  rein,  and  hit  his  off  wheel-horse;  and 
vice  versa'  This  will  keep  the  head  of  the  pole  (which 
he  should  have  his  eye  upon)  just  between  the  leaders, 
and  the  wheelers  will  follow,  as  if  they  were  running  on 
a  straight  road.  This  will  also  secure  him  against  dan- 
ger, by  clearing  his  coach  of  posts, gutters,  &c.  No  man 
can  make  a  neat  turn  with  four  horses,  unless  he  shoot  his 
wheelers,  at  the  same  time  that  he  points  his  leaders. 

In  turning  the  icheelers  must  rather  be  kept  up,  and  the 
leaders  be  tight  in  hand,  to  avoid  the  corner;  for,  if  the 
wheelers  flag,  and  the  leaders  draw,  the  carriage  must  be 
brought  against  it. 


THE     RANKS     IN     TOWN. 

These  must  neverhe  broken,  either  in  driving  through 
crowded  streets,  or  in  setting  down  at  crowded  places. 

As  to  admitting  others  into  the  rank,  every  driver 
should  do  as  he  would  be  done  by. 


It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  horses  to  stop  by  notice,  as  it 
may  prevent  accident. 

In  pulling  up,  the  driver  must  pull  the  reins  equally,  but 
rather  those  of  the  v^heelers  first. 

When  a  young  coach-horse  is  stopped,  it  should  be  very 
gradually — allowing  at  least  ten  yards  to  do  it  in  ;  for  if 
it  be  attempted  to  stop  him  short,  he  will  resist. 

A  careful  driver  will  never  keep  his  carriage  standing 
in  a  great  thoroughfare. 


240  DRIVING. 

When  obliged  to  slop  in  a  crowded  street,  the  driver 
should,  if  possible,  avoid  the  spot  where  another  carriage 
is  stopping ;  should  choose  as  much  as  possible  the  widest 
part  of  the  streets ;  and  should  draw  up  his  wheels  close 
to  the  curb. 

When  a  rider  gets  out  of  a  close  carriage,  he  should 
always  shut  the  door,  to  prevent  its  swinging  about,  the 
hinges  being  strained,  or  the  panels  getting  a  blow^ 
against  posts,  &c. 

There  is  no  part  of  stage-coach  economy  in  which 
greater  alteration  has  been  made  than  in  changing  horses. 

Unless  buisness  is  to  be  transacted — as  taking  fares  for 
passengers,  setting  down,  getting  out  parcels,  «&c. —  the 
average  with  fast  coaches  is  three  minutes  for  each 
change. 


ACCIDENTS,    ETC.     TO     HORSES. 

A  cantering  leader,  or  one  that  frets',  is  generally  mis- 
managed by  young  coachmen.  They  are  apt  to  pull  him 
back,  and  endeavor  to  get  him  to  trot,'  by  the  bit,  which 
generally  fails,  or  makes  him  even  worse,  by  bringing  him 
back  on  his  bar.  The  right  way  is  to  pull  him  back  by 
his  harness ;  that  is,  to  keep  the  wheelers  back,  so  that  he 
may  feel  his  coller  and  bit  at  the  same  time. 

A  horse  that  kicks  ought  to  be  taken  very  short  in  his 
pole-piece,  and  gagged ;  and,  w^hen  he  begins  to  kick,  he 
should  be  whipped  on  the  ears— a  punishment  which 
should  never  be  inflicted  but  for  vice. — Hallooing  to  a 
horse  when  he  kicks  has  sometimes  an  effect. 


ACCIDENTS,     ETC.     TO     HORSES,  241 

A  hot  leader  is  sometimes  benefited  by  moping.  An 
experienced  driver  says,  '  I  oncebought  a  capital  coach, 
horse  for  twenty-six  pounds,  because  no  one  could  drive 
him  ;  and,  as  he  had  broken  two  carriages,  he  was  the 
terror  of  the  neighbourhood.  I  moped  him,  and  could 
drive  him  with  the  greatest  safety,  either  leader,  or  at 
wheel.' 

In  the  case  of  a  horse  falling,  a  periodical  writer,  re- 
plying to  another,  says,'  in  one  of  his  letters  on '  the  Road,' 
he  says, '  if  the  coachman  be  driving  with  the  short  wheel 
rein,  and  a  horse  fall  beyond  recovery,  he  had  better 
open  his  hand,  and  let  the  reins  fall  out,  than  run  the  risk 
of  being  pulled  ofTthe  box.'  With  all  due  deference  to 
such  authority,  I  cannot  subscribe  to  this,  as  it  frequently 
happens  that  a  horse  falls,  is  dragged  along  the  ground 
for  a  short  distance,  and  recovers  himself  the  moment  the 
coach  stops,  and  then  starts  off  at  full  gallop,  the  other 
horses  following  hisexample.  Novv,if  coachee  has  opened 
his  fist,  and  let  the  reins  tumble  out,  and  ihe'above  occur- 
rence should  take  place,  I  w'ould  certainly  rather  be  on 
the  top  of  Cheviot  than  on  the  top  of  the  said  coach,  as  the 
catastrophe  would  not  be  very  difficult  to  foretell. 

On  many  horses  hot  weather  has  a  singular  effect ;  and 
therefore,  it  often  happens  that  a  good  winter-horse  is  an 
indifferent  summer  one. 

Coach-horses  are  subject  to  many  accidents,  of  which 
one  is  peculiar  to  them — namely,  fracture  of  the  legs  in 
trotting  on  level  ground.  Fractures  of  the  foot  in 
draught  horses  and  others  are  common  ;  but  fractures  of 
the  leg  in  coach-horses  when  trotting  over  lev^el  ground, 
16 


243  DRIVING. 

are  probably  caused  by  over-tension  of  the  limb  in  the  act 
of  drawing.  It  is  said  th  at  a  coach-horse's  leg  is  most  fre- 
quently broken  when,  with  a  heavy  load  behind  him,  he 
snatches  at  his  collar  in  a  turn  of  the  road. 

They  are  also  subject  to  an  affection  known  by  the  ap- 
pellation of  the  lick,  which  greatly  injures  their  condition. 
In  this  state,  they  lick  each  other's  skins,  and  gnaw  their 
halters  to  pieces.  This  probably  proceeds  from  the  state 
of  the  stomach,  caused  by  the  excitement  of  high  feeding 
and  work.  It  maybe  removed  by  opening  or  alterative 
medicines. 

They  are  likewise  subject  to  a  kind  of  vertigo,  which  on 
the  road  is  called  megrims.  This,  of  which  the  immedi- 
ate cause  is  temporary  pressure  on  the  brain,  is  often 
brought  on  by  running  in  the  face  of  a  hot  sun ;  and  there- 
fore horses  subject  to  megrims  ought  to  work  at  night. 

The  attack  appears  to  come  on  suddenly,  though  a 
snatching  motion  of  the  head  is  sometimes  observed  to 
precede  it.  If  not  immediately  pulled  up,  the  horse  thus  af- 
ected  drops.  Such  horses  should  have  attention  paid  to 
the  state  of  their  bowels,  and  have  frequent  antimonial 
alteratives.  What  is  called 'a  megrim  horse'  is  always 
dangerous,  especially  near  a  precipice  or  ditch,  as,  when 
seized,  he  rolls  away  from  his  partner,  and  of  course  takes 
him  with  him. 


ACCIDENTS     TO     COACHES,    ETC. 

A  necessary  precaution  in  a  gig  is — never   to  sit  with 
the  feet  under  the  body,  but  always  to  have  one,  if  not 


ACCIDENTS      TO      COACHES,      ETC.  343 

both,  out  before  it.—'  I  had  a  passenger  by  the  side  of  me,' 
sa)^s  the  driver  who  gives  this  caution,  'who  was  sitting 
with  his  feet  under  his  belly,  and  who  was  consequently 
thrown  with  much  violence  into  the  road.  I  had  five  miles 
further  to  drive  him,  during  which  he  took  care  to  have 
his  feet  before  him.' 

In  stage-coaches,  accidents  no  doubt  occur,  and  no  'one 
will  assert  that  the  proprietors  guard  against  them  to  the 
utmost  of  their  power.  The  great  competition,  however, 
which  they  have  to  encounter,  is  a  strong  stimulant  to 
their  exertions  on  this  score.  In  some  respects,  also,  the 
increase  of  pace  has  become  the  traveller's  security :  coach- 
es and  harness  must  be  of  the  best  quality  j  horses  must 
be  fresh  and  sound  ;  coachmen  of  skill  and  respectability 
can  alone  be  employed ;  and  to  this  increased  pace  is  ow- 
ing the  improvement  ih  these  men's  character.  They 
have  not  time  now  for  drinking,  and  they  come  in  collis- 
ion with  a  class  of  persons  superior  to  those  who  formerly 
were  stage-coach  passengers,  by  whose  example  it  has 
been  impossible  for  them  not  to  profit.  A  coachman  drunk 
on  his  box  is  now  a  rarity,  a  coachman  quite  sober  was,  but 
a  few  years  ago,  still  more  so. 

On  the  whole,  how^ever,  travelling  by  public  conveyan- 
ces was  never  so  secure  as  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Axle- 
trees  and  springs  do  not  often  break  now ;  and  if  proprie- 
tors goto  the  expense,  their  wheels  are  made  secure  against 
coming  off". 

The  worst  accidents,  however,  and  those  which,  Avith 
the  present  structure  of  coaches,  can  never  be  entirely 


'244  DRIVING. 

provided  against,  arise  from  broken  axle-trees,  and  wheels 
coming  off  on  the  road.  The  guard,  therefore,  in  whose 
department  this  lies,  ought  to  examine  the  axle-tree  every 
time  it  is  fresh  greased.  He  should  also  remove  it  once  in 
ten  days,  put  a  string  through  the  bolt  that  receives  the 
linch-pin,  and  hang  it  up  and  cleanse  it;  and  he  should 
then  strike  it  with  a  hammer,  when,  if  uncracked  and 
sound,  it  will  ring  like  a  bell — the  coachman  attending  to 
take  care  that  it  be  again  properly  screwed  on. 

Reins  also  break,  though  rarely,  except  in  those  parts 
which  run  through  the  terretsthe  rings  of  the  throat-lash, 
or  in  the  billets ;  and  attention  to  these  would  make  all 
safe,  as  far  as  accidents  from  this  cause  are  concerned 

Accidents  happen  also  from  want  of  attention  to  the  se- 
curity of  the  bridles.  The  throat-lash,  therefore, — par- 
ticularly of  the  wheelers,  should  be  as  tight  as  can  be  al- 
lowed without  injuring  respiration.  There  otherwise  is 
always  danger  of  the  bridle  being  pulled  off. 

Accidents,  moreover,  happen  from  galloping  coach-hors- 
es down  hill,  or  on  even  ground.  If,  indeed,  an  accident 
then  happen,  it  must  be  a  bad  one.  The  goodness  of  a 
road  is  no  preserative  against  it :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  if  a  coach  begin  to  swing,  it  may  go  over  from 
the  very  circumstance  of  the  road  being  so  level  and  so 
smooth  that  there  is  nothing  on  its  surface  to  hold  the 
wheels  to  the  ground.  If,  moreover,  there  be  two  horses  a  t 
wheel  whosestride  in  their  gallop  differsmuch  as  to  extent 
the  unequal  draught  invariably  sets  the  coach  rolling  and, 
unless  the  pace  moderate,  the  fore-wheel  passing  even  over 


ACCIDENTS      TO      COACHES,      ETC.  145 

a  small  Stone,  may,  under  such  circumstances,  cause  the 
coach  to  upset.  In  respect  to  lateral  motion,  however, 
much  depends  upon  the  build  of  the  carriage. 

In  galloping  coach-horses,  if  the  leaders  lead  off  witli 
twolegs,  motion  of  the  coach  is  considerably  truer,  and 
the  swing-bars, are  also  much  more  at  rest,  than  when  each 
horse  uses  the  same  leg. 

It  appears,  then  that  accidents  to  coaches  are  chiefly  to 
be  attributed  either  to  the  want  of  proper  skill  and  care  in 
the  servants  employed,  or  to  what  is  still  less  pardonable, 
inattention  on  the  part  of  their  masters. 

Road-coachmen,  fortunately,  are  well  aware  that  the  law 
looks  sharply  after  them,  and  that  for  neglect  proved  a- 
gainst  them,  they  are  equally  answerable  to  their  employ- 
ers, as  these  are  to  the  public. 

If  I  were  to  go  upon  the  road,  says  an  amateur,  I  would 
be  a  night-coachman  through  a  well  inhabited  country. 
For  six  months  of  a  year  it  is  undoubtedly  the  pleasenter 
service,  and  I  never  found  any  difference  between  taking 
rest  by  day  or  by  night.  It  is  however  calculated  only  for 
a  man  in  the  prime  of  his  days,  as  all  his  energies  are  re- 
quired. 

The  night-coachman  ought  to  know  his  line  of  road  well. 
He  mast  take  rest  regularly,  or  he  will  be  sure  to  become 
drowsy,  if  he  do  not  go  to  sleep.  He  must  also  keep  him- 
self sober ;  keep  a  tight  hand  on  his  horses ;  keep  the  mid- 
dle of  the  road  ;  and  be  sure  to  keep  time. 

The  night-coachman  must  cast  his  eye  well  forward, 
and  get  out  of  the  way  of  carts  and  waggons  in  time. 

Although,  by  looking  perpendicularly  fromhis  box  or  at 


216  DRIVING. 

the  hedges,  if  there  be  any,  a  coachman  may  always  see  if 
he  be  in  the  road,  yet  if  he  cannot  throw  his  eye  some  way 
before  his  leaders'  heads,  he  is  going  at  random.  He  will 
often  get  close  to  things  he  may  meet  in  the  road  before  he 
is  aware  of  them ;  and  therefore,  as  I  have  already  said, 
it  is  essential  that  he  should  be  wide  awake,  and  have  his 
horses  well  in  hand. 

Chains  and  springs  on  the  bars  are  good  things  fornight- 
work,  as  they  prevent  the  leaders'  traces  coming  off. 

A  narrow  road,  sufficiently  wide,  of  course,  for  carriages 
to  pass  with  convenience— with  no  ditch  on  the  side— is 
much  the  best  for  night  work. 

Unless  when  the  moon  is  very  bright,  a  dark  night  is  in 
favor  of  safe  travelling.  When  it  is  what  coachmen  term 
'  a  clear  dark,'  the  lamps  give  much  better  light  than  when 
the  darkness  approaches  to  grey. 

In  very  wide  roads,  particularly  where  there  are  no 
hedges  to  confine  them,  lamp-light  is  both  weak  and  de- 
ceiving ;  and  moon  light  is  often  glimmering  and  doubtful 
particularly  when  clouds  are  passing  rapidly. 

Lamp-light  is  treacherous  both  in  fogs,  and  when  horses 
are  going  at  a  moderate  pace,  with  the  wind  just  behind 
them ;  for  then  the  steam  arising  from  their  bodies  follows 
them  and  necessarily  obstructs  the  light. 

Sometimes,  from  driven  rain  or  snow,  a  coachman  can 
scarcely  open  his  eyes  so  as  to  see  the  road  to  the  extent  of 
the  light  given  by  the  lamps ;  in  which  case  a  tight  hand 
on  the  horses  is  especially  necessary. 

A  heavy  fog  is  the  only  thing  which  baffles  the  skill  and 
intrepidity  of  our  night-coachmen.  In  this  case,  lamps  are 


0  C  S  E  Pv  V  A  T  I  O  N  S  ,      ETC.  217 

of  no  avail  as  to  showing  light  forward  ;  and,  in  the  wor?;t 
cases,  the  only  use  that  can  be  made  of  them  is  for  the 
guard  to  hold  one  in  his  hand  behind  the  coach,  by  which 
he  will  be  able  to  see  whether  the  horses  are  in  the  road 
or  not. 

Lamps,  however,  are  alwaysiisefi.il  in  case  of  accidents; 
and,  except  in  very  clear  moonlight,  a  night-coach  should 
never  travel  without  them. 

Accidents  often  occur  from  coachmen  neglecting  to  light 
their  lamps  in  going  into  a  town.  It  often  happens  that, 
when  a  coach  comes  down  the  road  in  the  morning,  there 
may  be  no  obstruction  in  the  streets  ;  but  rubbish  from 
buildings,  stones,  or  many  other  things,  maybe  thrown  out 
by  the  time  it  comes  up  again  at  night. 

When  an  accideut  happens  to  a  coach,  presence  of  mind 
is  much  required.  Outside  passengers  should  never  think 
of  quitting  a  coach  by  jumping  from  the  fore  part,  at  least, 
imtil  she  falls  to  the  ground.  From  the  box,  indeed,  aman 
may  get  over  the  roof  into  the  guard's  seat,  and  thence 
descend. 


OBSTRUCTIONS,    OFFENCES,   AND  INJURIES. 

By  the  1st  Geo.  I.  c.57,  drivers  of  hackney-coaches  are  to 
give  way  to  gentlemen's  carriages,  under  a  penalty  of  10s. 

If  a  carriage  be  obstructed  by  disorderly  persons,  the 
driver  should  take  out  his  pocket-book,  and  let  the  persons 
guilty  of  this  see  that  he  is  taking  a  note  of  their  number, 
and  he  should  then  coolly  tell  them  that  he  will  summon 
them  if  they  do  not  immediately  clear  the  way. 


248  DRIVING. 

If  a  carriage  be  injured  by  another  running  against  it, 
the  driver  should  ascertain  whose  carriage  has  done  the 
mischief,  and  let  his  coachmaker  give  an  estimate  of  the 
charge  for  repairing  it ;  but,  before  he  has  it  done,  he 
should  let  the  person  who  injured  it  see  the  mischief,  and 
pay  the  charge ;  or,  as  is  the  custom,  let  the  repair  be  made 
by  the  coachmaker  of  the  party  who  committed  the  injury. 


249 


WRESTLING. 


WRESTLING     IN     GENERAL, 


Of  the  principles  of  wrestling  different  views  have  been 
taken.  In  England,  its  rules  have  been  rather  restricted. 
On  the  continent,  they  have  admitted  not  only  what  has 
here  been  deemed  more  or  less  unfair,  but  what  is  positive- 
ly so,  as  well  as  what  is  unseemly  and  disgusting. 

Mr,  Clias  has,  it  seems,  introduced  some  of  these  prac- 
tices into  our  public  schools ;  and  the  following  are  the 
observations  of  one  of  their  ablest  opponents,  a  clever 
writer  in  Blackwood's  Magazine. 

'We  have  been  too  long  accustomed  to  the  simple, 
straightforward,  manly,  close-hugging,  back-hold '  woistle' 
of  the  north  of  England,  to  enter  into  the  Captain's  cantrips, 
and  we  devoutly  wish  that  we  could  see  himself,  or  his 
best  scholar,  try  a  fall  with  any  one  of  fifty  of  the  Camber- 
land  and  Westmoreland  Society  in  London.' — '  In  order 
to  preparehis  scholars  for  wrestling,  the  most  complicated 
ofgymnastics,both  with  respectto  the  diversity  of  its  move- 
ments, and  the  difierent  situation  in  which  wrestlers  are 
often  placed,  Captain  Clias  explains  a  course  of  prepara- 
tory exercises,  which  serves  as  an  introduction.  They 
have  a  somewhat  quackish  character,  and  a  few  of  them 
seem  to  us  better  fitted  to  make  a  mountebank  than  a  wrest " 
ler.' — '  The  essential  difference  between  Captain  Clias's 
systemof  wrestling  and  that  of  the  north  of  England,  is 


250  WRESTLING. 

this,  that  in  his,  the  wrestlers  catch  hold  iu  any  way  they 
choose ;  whereas,  in  the  north,  each  party  has  an  equal  and 
similar  hold  before  the  struggle  begins.  Who  can  doubt 
win  ch  is  the  better  system^ — The  Captain's  is  radically 
savage  and  barbarous,  and  more  congenial  with  the  habits 
and  temper  of  African  negroes  than  European  whites. 
The  other  is  fair,  just  and  civilized.  To  us  the  sight  of 
one  man  catching  hold  of  another  round  the  waist,  and  con" 
sequently,  throwing  him  at  hispleasure,  without  the  possi- 
bility of  his  antagonist  making  any  effectual  resistance, 
would  be  sickeningindeed.  Thus,  what  true  cock  of  the 
North  can  read  without  disgust  Exercise  XII.  entitled 
'  Of  the  First  Fall'?' '  The  following  exhibition  must  resem- 
ble dog-fighting  more  then  man-wrestling : — '  In  this  exer- 
cise the  two  wrestlers  are  lying  on  the  ground,  one  on  his 
right  side,  and  the  other  on  his  left,  two  feet  apart,  and 
opposite  to  each  other,'  &c. 

While  we  concur  in  these  views  as  to  all  that,  indepen- 
dent of  mere  national  habits,  is  really  unfair,  and  as  to  all 
that  is  in  any  way  disgusting  or  even  unseemly,  we  think 
the  rules  of  English  wrestling  might  be  advantageously 
extended. 

AVrestling  ought  to  be  considered  not  merely  as  a  pastime, 
which  may  be  subjected  at  pleasure  to  the  narrowest  rules 
but  as  a  means  of  defence,  in  which  all  that  can  properly  be 
called  wrestling,  and  is  capable  of  conferring  an  advantage, 
is  admissible,  because,  when  used  as  defence,  such  advan- 
tages would  be  taken. 

If  here  it  be  objected,  that  what  is  positively  unfair  or 
unseemly  might  be  equally  advantageous,  and  should  there- 


W  U  E  S  T  L  I  N  G      IN      G  K  N  E  R  A  L  .  251 

lure  be  taught,  we  answer  no ;  because  that  which  is  here 
unlair,  as  the  giving  a  blow,  belongs  to,  and  is  taught  by 
another  art,  and  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  this  one, 
and  because  that  which  is  unseemly  need  never  be  taught. 

It  is  with  caution,  therefore,  that  we  shall  follow  the 
continenlalg3'-mnasiarchsin  the  extension  of  old  English 
rules. 

To  these  general  observations,  we  have  now  to  add  a 
few,  which  are  rather  more  particular,  but  still  regard 
wrestling,  generally  considered. 

The  first  care  of  the  wrestler  should  be  to  avoid  being 
held  bv  a  stronger  man. 

His  next  care  should  be  quickly  to  discover  the  weak- 
ness of  his  adversary  ;  alwa)'s  remembering,  that  weight 
and  strength  are  of  greatly  diminished  value,  when  expe- 
rience and  skill  are  defective. 

With  this  in  view,  he  should  then  \vatch  ever}''  move- 
ment of  the  feet  of  his  antagonist,  to  throw  him  when  his 
balance  is  faulty,  when  he  fails  in  an  attack,  or  when  he  is 
any  way  disunited. 

The  rules  to  be  observed  in  wrestling  are; 

1st.  The  wrestlers  must  either  assume  the  position  in 
Plate  XLV.,  or  advance  upon  each  other  in  a  struggle 
with  the  arms. 

2d.  No  grasp  is  to  be  made  at  any  part  of  the  dress,  face, 
hair,  &c.,  but  only  at  the  body  or  limbs. 

3d.  Striking  and  kicking  are  utterly  inadmissible. 

4th.  Whenever  it  is  doubtful  who  is  the  victor,  a  plu- 
rality of  voices  must  decide  it. 

5th.  These  may  also  applaud,  encourage,  or  censure  ; 
but  no  one  may  direct  the  hands  of  wrestlers. 


252  WRESTLING. 

6th.  The  push  ancFthe  pull  can  be  decided  only  when 
the  opponent  is  unable  to  resist  longer.  The  heave  is 
complete,  if  he  be  unable  to  disengage  himself.  The 
throw  is  decided  when  one  is  thrown  oftener  than  the 
other;  or  when  one  throws  another  without  falling 
himself,  or  only  touching  the  ground  with  his  hands  ;  or 
when  one  is  held   so  firmly  down  that  he  can  do  no  more. 


Plate  XLV. 

This  consists  merely  in  pushing,  without  trying-  to 
throw.  The  antagonists  seize  each  other  by  the  arms  close 
to  the  shoulders,  and  nearer  to  their  inner  than  their  out- 
er sides  inclining  the  body  forward  upon  one  leg,  and 
keeping  the  other  backward. 

If  one,  w  hen  in  the  above  position,  possess  sufficient 
power  to  push  the  other  backward  until  he  is  thrown  out 
of  the  forward  and  resisting,  into  a  perpendicular  posi- 
tion, he  is  certain  to  conquer,  if  he  still  press  him  back- 
ward with  longer  steps,  and  as  fast  as  possible.  The  lat- 
ter cannot  step  backward  as  quickly  as  the  former  gains 
upon  him  ;  he  must  therefore,  either  fall,  or  turn  himself 
quickly  round  for  the  purpose  of  flight. 


THE      HEAVE.  253 


THE   PULL, 


Plate  XL  VI. 


Here,  he  Avho  attempts  to  dragawa}^  the  other,  ought  to 
collect  all  his  power,  balance  himself  on  the  leg  behind, 
bend  gently,  place  his  feet  side  wise,  and  pull  his  antago- 
nist strongly  in  the  suitable  direction. 

When  he  who  resists  loses  footing,  and  cannot  main- 
tain his  place  directly  before  the  other,  he  must  make  a 
pace  sidewise,  from  the  right  to  the  left  when  the  right 
leg  is  forward,  draw  thus  his  antagonist  out  of  balance, 
and  endeavor  either  to  drag  him  away  in  his  turn,  or  to 
regain  his  own  footing. 

THE    HEAVE. 

Here,  each  wrestler  endeavors  to  introduce  his  arms 
between  the  arms  and  body  of  his  opponent,  to  seize  him 
by  the  middle,  to  raise  him  from  the  ground,  and  to  hold 
him  in  that  position  till  he  acknowledges  his  defeat.  Or, 
one  allows  the  other  to  seize  him  by  the  middle  of  the 
body,  and  the  latter  tries  to  hold  him  fast. 

The  hold  ought  to  be  strong  enough  to  prevent  the 
prisoner's  escape,  without  injuring  or  throwing  him. 

For  this  purpose,  he  who  holds  must  press  his  head 
against  his  antagonist's  breast,  and  raise  up  his  shoulders 
as  much  as  possible  to  prevent  the  other's  movements,  and 
particularly  the  introduction  of  his  arm  between  the  bod- 
ies of  both. 

It  is  most  important,  that  he  who  holds  should  husband 


254  WRESTLING. 

his  Strength,  as  well  as  follow,  with  great  suppleness,  all 
the  movements  of  him  who  is  held. 

The  prisoner  must  endeavor  to  disengage  himself. 

In  this,  however,  he  must  not  with  his  hands  touch  his 
antagonist's  face,  or  wring  his  fingers,  or  deviate  from  the 
rules  already  laid  down. 

He  must  impede  his  antagonist's  progress  by  extending 
his  arms  as  firmly  against  him  as  possible,  and  by  bend- 
ing his  belly  inward,  and  must  thus,  if  possible,  escape 
being  lifted  from  the  ground.  He  mast  also  try  to  thrust 
his  hands  and  the  lower  parts  of  his  arras  between  his 
own  body  and  his  antagonist's  arms,  and  then  force  the 
latter's  hand  asunder. 

If  he  disengage  himself,  he  is  the  conqueror;  if  not, 
this  honor  is  due  to  his  antagonist.— (Plate  XLVII). 

If  the  prisoner  thus  be  unable  to  disengage  himself,  he 
must,  after  leaning  to  the  right  in  order  to  introduce  the 
left  arm,  seize  the  moment  when  the  other  forces  it  away, 
to  make  a  movement  backward  with  his  head,  raise  his 
arms  parallel  to  his  ears,  throw  them  forcibly  from  right 
to  left  over  the  head  of  his  antagonist,  and  thereby  turn 
himself. 

If  the  prisoner  do  not  succeed  in  completely  turning 
himself  by  this  movement,  he  may  lean  his  right  fore 
arm  strongly  against  the  nape  of  the  neck  of  him  who 
holds  him,  and  remain  in  that  position  till  able  to  turn 
and  disengage  himself. 

In  the  heave,  one  wrestler  rnay  also  try  to  seize  both 
arms  of  his  antagonist  from  behind,  and  so  pinion  him. 
For  this  purpose,  to  get  in  tlie  rear  of  the  antagonist  is 


THE      HEAVE.  255 

difficult.  It  may  sometimes,  however,  be  accomplished 
by  springing  quickly  round  and  seizing  from  behind. 

Or,  he  may  turn  his  antagonist  completely  and  quickly 
round,  and  then  seize  him,  by  giving  that  shoulder  of  his 
antagonists  which  he  presses  most  forward  a  quick  and 
violent  push,  and  at  the  same  instant  drawing  the  other 
shoulder  toward  him  with  his  other  hand;  thus  turning 
himsomewhat  round,  and  thereby  springing  more  easily 
behind  him. 

Or,  having  seized  his  antagonist,  he  may  preteml  to 
exert  himself  in  turning  the  latter  round  to  one  side,  and 
instantly  change  this  direction  to  the  opposite  side,  in 
Avhich  he  must  turn  his  opponent  with  his  utmost  strength. 

Or,  instead  of  seizing  his  antagonist  by  both  arms,  he 
may  rather  wait  for  him,  and,  in  the  moment  that  the  lat- 
ter rushes  upon  him,  slip  a  little  to  the  side  opposed  to  that 
where  his  antagonist's  foremost  leg  comes,  grasp  his  near- 
est arm  quickly,  and  pull  him  so  forcibly  towards  him  as 
to  be  able  to  seize  him  from  behind. 

The  prisoner  may  disengage  himself  by  striking  both 
arms  out  so  forcibly  as  to  break  the  other's  grasp. 

A  very  beautiful  heave,  known  to  the  ancient  wrestlers, 
is  as  follows ;  at  a  favorable  moment,  one  seizes  the  oth- 
er's left  wrist  with  his  right  hand,  stoops  by  a  step  for- 
ward with  his  left  leg,  grasps  his  antagonist's  knee-joint 
from  wilhin  with  his  left  hand,  and  then,  by  drawing  both 
his  hands  forcibly  towards  him,  easily  brings  him  upon 
his  shoulder,  thus  not  only  heaving  him,  but  actually  car- 
him  off.— (Plate  XLVIII). 


^56  WRESTLING. 


THE   THROW. 


Here  the  object  is  to  lay  the  opponent  on  the  ground  ;  it 
being  previously  settled  whether  the  victory  is  to 
be  decided  by  one  throw,  by  several,  or  by  holding  the  op- 
ponent firmly  down. 

When  one  has  seized  the  other  round  the  body ,  he  ought 
to  keep  his  head  as  close  as  possible  to  his  highest  shoul- 
der, to  prevent  the  other's  taking  it  under  his  arm,  to  raise 
him  from  the  ground,  and  to  push  on  one  side  and  throw 
him  to  the  other. 

Or,  one  may  endeavor,  by  means  of  a  grasp  of  his  an- 
tagonist's shoulder,  to  push  him  over  to  the  left  side;  and, 
on  his  resisting  this  pressure  with  all  his  strength,  and 
laboring  towards  the  right,  he  may  suddenly  change  the 
direction  of  his  pressure,  viz.  to  the  right,  when  it  is  ex- 
tremely probable  that  his  antagonist  will  fall  on  that  side. 

Or,  he  may  take  advantage  of  the  moment  when  his 
antagonist  advances  one  of  his  feet,  and  throw  him  down 
by  atrip  either  backward  or  forward. 

Baclcvmrd.. 

This  is  executed  by  placing  either  the  right  leg  out- 
wards, behind  the  right  of  the  antagonist  or  the  left  leg, 
outwards,  behind  the  left  leg  of  the  antagonist,  and  pressing 
strongly  on  the  breast  of  him  who  is  to  be  overthrown. 

He  who  resists  ought  instantly  to  disengage  his  leg, 
and  place  itbehind. 

One  may  likewise  let  himself  fall  to  the  left,  lift  quickly 
from  the  right,  with  the  top  of  his  foot,  the  left  leg  of  his 
antagonist,  by  tacking  it  under  the  calf,  and  make  him  fall 


THE      THROW.  257 

on  his  back,  by  pulling  him  with  the  left  hand,  and  push- 
ing with  the  right.  Or  he  may  fall  to  the  right,  lift  from 
the  left,  &c. 

One  may,  moreover,  give  a  push  from  left  to  right,  take 
advantage  of  that  moment  to  place  the  end  of  the  right 
foot  exterior  to  the  foot  of  his  antagonist,  and  then  push 
from  right  to  left,  without  moving  the  foot  which  holds. 
Or  he  may  give  the  first  push  from  right  to  left,  &c. 

Forward. 

One  may  place  the  right  leg  inside  the  left  of  the  other, 
or  the  left  inside  the  right  of  the  other,  making,  with  the 
point  of  his  foot,  the  trip  on  the  fore  part  of  his  antago- 
nist's leg. 

One  may  also  suddenly  slip  under  the  other's  left  arm 
place  his  right  leg  with  the  knee  bent  between  the  other's 
legs,  and  clasp  the  latter's  back  with  his  right  arm,  in 
which  case  the  latter  will  fall  over  his  knee. 

These  movements  must  constitute  one  rapid  act. 

The  exterior  trip  of  the  left  against  the  right,  and  of 
the  right  against  the  left,  is  given  when  the  antagonist 
presents  one  of  his  legs  as  a  trap. 

If  it  be  observed  that  the  antagonist  intends  the  exteri- 
or snare,  from  the  right  against  the  right,  the  left  leg  should 
be  moved  quickly  outward,  behind  that  which  he  presents 
and  engaging  him  under  the  knee,  it  is  to  be  raised  up, 
drawing  towards  one  with  force  and  rapidity;  it  is  neces- 
sary to  pull  towards  us  with  the  left  hand,  whilst  we  push 
with  the  right. 

The  blow  of  the  knee  is  given  when  an  antagonist, 
17 


256 


WRESTLING. 


bending  backwards,  stretches  one  of  his  legs  forwards  to 
overturn.  The  instant  must  then  be  seized,  to  give  him 
with  the  knee,  behind  his,  a  strong  push  in  that  part,  and 
to  draw  or  push  him  in  a  contrary  direction. 

Strength  and  tallness  giving  one  man  great  advantage 
over  another,  the  left  arm  of  the  stronger,  may  move 
away  the  right  of  the  weaker;  the  head  of  the  former 
may  press  against  that  of  the  latter ;  his  right  arm  may 
bear  down  the  shoulder  of  the  latter  ;  and  he  may  over- 
throw him  by  bending  thus  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
upon  the  hips. 

To  resist  this  attack,  the  antagonist  must  lower  himself 
gently,  seize  with  his  lower  hand  the  leg  of  the  stronger, 
pull  it  forcibly  up,  put  instantly  one  of  his  legs  behind 
that  on  which  his  antagonist  stands,  lean  the  upper  part  of 
his  body  forward,  and  quickly  overthrow  him. 

Or,  as  soon  as  he  sees  that  the  other  means  to  press  him 
down,  he  may  move  his  head  back,  place  his  right  leg  in- 
side the  left  of  his  antagonist,  lift  up  the  leg,  push  to  the 
right  with  the  right  arm  placed  across  the  chin  of  the 
stronger,  and  either  overthrow,  or  raise  him  from  the 
ground,  to  overthrow  him  to  either  side. 

THE   MIXED   WRESTLE. 

In  this,  the  three  kinds  of  wrestling  are  united.  Each 
wrestler  must  constantly  contrive  to  push  or  pull,  to  heave 
or  to  throw. 

His  opponent  being  uncertain  of  his  manoeuvre,  must 
increase  his  vigilance,  dexterity,  and  strength,  to  give  in- 
stantly the  proper  kind  of  resistance. 

He  who  is  Urst  fatigued  is  vanquished. 


259 


BOXING 


UTILITY    OF   liOXING. 

The  art  of  boxing  is  analogous  to  the  use  of  the  ceslus 
among  the  Greeks,  during  the  era  of  their  sages  and  he- 
roes. It  was  a  leathern  gauntlet  plated,  with  iron,  to  ren- 
der the  blows  more  heavy. 

The  Greeks,  as  well  as  the  Romans,  found  the  encour- 
agement of  gymnastic  exercises  essential  to  their  nation- 
al security  and  honor.  They  found  in  it  also  an  invigo- 
rator  of  the  public  mind,  by  creating  in  it  a  love  for  what- 
ever is  athletic,  manly,  and  brave. 

Self-defence,  indeed,  is  essential  to  the  safety  of  man 
as  a  social  being;  nor  is  it  less  requisite  to  him  as  an  in- 
dividual. 

Now,  there  is  a  saying  no  less  old  than  true— that  '  no- 
thing is  worth  doing  that  is  not  worth  doing  well.'  If 
.-^elf- defence  be  at  all  requisite,  if  it  tend  to  the  protection, 
of  life  or  property,  then  it  is  worth  acquiring  in  its  natu- 
ral form,  together  with  all  the  art  it  will  admit  of. 

A  man's  bare  arm  is  his  natural  weapon,  at  all  times  by 
his  side  ready  for  his  protection  ;  and  where  art  is  united 
to  muscular  strength,  it  is  extremely  powerful  and  effica- 
cious. 

That  any  sanction  given  to  its  use  will  make  that  use 
more  frequent  is  probable.    But  then  it  will  only  substi- 


260 


tute  it,  in  common  cases,  for  some  more  dangerous  prac- 
tice or  weapon. 

Let  a  contrast  be  drawn  between  the  fair  contest  of  the 
fist,  and  the  modes  of  fight  pre\^alent  even  in  some  parts 
of  this  country;  or  lee  us  contemplate  the  offensive  and 
defensive  forms  of  attack  in  foreign  countries,  and  then 
it  will  be  seen  whether  a  knowledge  of  pugilism  is  not  a 
public  benefit,  as  well  as  an  individual  security. 

In  our  northern  counties,  where  boxing  is  but  imper- 
fectly understood,  and  its  laws  are  unknown,  they  fight  up 
and  down ;  that  is,  when  one  gets  the  other  down,  he  who 
is  uppermost  throttles,  kicks,  or  jumps  on  him  who  is  down 
till  he  has  killed  or  disabled  him.  This,  too,  is  pretty 
much  the  case  in  Ireland ;  and  indeed,  all  over  the  worldi 
except  in  those  parts  of  England  where  regulated  boxing 
is  in  use. 

In  Ireland,  men  usually  fight  with  sticks.  In  this  mode 
of  combat,  a  man  may,  at  the  onset,  receive  a  mortal  blow 
whereas,  in  boxing  exhaustion  frequently  causes  the 
weaker  party  to  yield,  and '  give  in ; '  and  thus  disputes, 
are  settled  by  a  less  dangerous,  though  more  protracted 
mode  of  fighting.  In  the  same  country,  owing  to  ignor- 
ance of  the  generous  rules  of  boxing  and  the  spirit  it  in- 
spires, a  man  who  conceives  himself  aggrieved  by  anoth- 
er does  not  scruple  to  waylay  him,  and  murder  him  with 
a  bludgeon  or  a  pitchfork,  or  to  set  fire  to  his  cabin,  and 
burn  him  or  his  family  in  their  sleep. 

Not  less  repugnant  to  humanity  are  the  barbarous  con- 
tests in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
Kicking,  biting,  and  even  gouging,  disgrace  their  inhu- 


UTILITY      OF      BOXING.  2G1 

man  fights.  The  latter  is  perpetrated  by  grappling  the 
head  of  an  opponent,  and  with  the  thumbs  forcing  his  eyes 
out  of  the  sockets.  Nor  is  this  all.  The  following  is  a 
short  narrative  of  an  American  combat.  '  A.  one  morn- 
ing met  B.  coming  from  a  fight,  '  Heyday !  man  (he  ex- 
claimed), your  eye  is  hanging  on  your  cheek.'  '  Yes,'  re- 
plied B. ;  'but  I  guess  I've  been  a  match  for  the  rascal.' 
And  holdin°^  forth  his  hand,  he  exhibited  an  indubitable 
proof  that  with  a  gripe  and  a  wrench  he  had  castrated  his 
adversary,' 

In  order  further  to  form  a  correct  judgment  on  this  sub- 
ject, it  is  alsonecessary  to  reflect  on  the  different  modes  of 
assuaging  the  revengeful  passions  adopted  by  the  lower 
orders  on  the  continent.  There,  it  is  not  unusual  to  be- 
hold the  long  knife,  or  the  stiletto,  carrying  with  it  the 
mortal  castigation  of  an  offence. 

What  a  contrast  exists  between  all  these  barbarous 
modes  of  fighting  and  the  order  which  prevails  whenever 
a  fight  occurs  in  this  country !  Here  a  ring  is  immediate- 
ly formed,  seconds  to  each  of  the  combatants  step  forward, 
the  surrounding  throng  maintain '  fair  play,'  and  the  busi- 
ness is  settled  with  as  much  order  and  propriety  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  will  admit  of. 

Thus  boxing  is  really  useful  to  society  as  a  refinement 
in  natural  combat.  In  England,  it  is  really  curious  and 
interesting  to  see  the  beneficent  rales  of  boxing  affecting 
all  the  contests  even  of  children.  In  passing  a  field  at 
Paddington,  t  one  day  observed  a  juvenile  fight.  Each 
antagonist  had  his  second,  who  after  a  round,  fell  on  one 
knee,  and  presented  the  other  in  the  rectangular  form 


263  BOXING. 

adapted  for  a  seat,  to  which,  at  the  close  of  each  round,  he 
perseveringly  pulled  his  principal,  who  sat  there  puffing 
and  blowing  as  if  he  had  been  engaged  in  mortal  combat. 
In  one  of  the  rounds,  one  of  the  principals  fell,  when  the 
other  was  instantly  withdrawn  by  his  second,  and  the 
prostrate  one  lifted  from  the  ground,  and  placed  on  the 
knee  of  his  second.  The  amusing  part  of  the  battle  was 
that  the  fighters  seemed  to  be  more  worn  out  by  the  per- 
petual and  determined  interference  of  the  seconds  than 
by  the  fight  itself — nor,  though  they  most  exemplarily 
submitted  to  it,  did  they  seem  to  be  much  comforted  by 
each  having  his  face  ever  and  anon  wiped  by  his  second's 
wet  and  dirty  pocket  handkerchief ! 

Immoral  efiects  have,  however,  been  imputed  to  boxing. 
The  gallows,  it  is  said,  has  been  supplied  from  the  ring. 
But  this,  it  has  been  well  observed,  means  nothing  more 
in  substance  than  that  these  venerable  institutions  are 
contemporaneous.  Pugilism  includes  nothing  essential- 
ly vicious  or  immoral ;  and  if  we  must  reason  and  de- 
cide from  abuse,  where  are  we  to  halt ;  and  what  is  to  be- 
come of  the  bench  of  biJihops'? 

It  is  true  that  boxing-matches,  being  proscribed  meet- 
ings unattended  by  any  peace-officer,  are  particularly  fa- 
vorable to  the  congregation  of  thieves  and  other  ruffians. 
But  this  is  evidently  not  the  fault  of  the  boxing-match, 
but  of  the  circumstances  attending  it.  Boxing-matches, 
however,  are  not  advocated  here. 

I  will  not  answer,  says  a  friend  to  boxing,  for  the  purity 
of  the  congregation  even  at  a  gymnasium  or  fives'  courti 
(where  boxing  is  merely  an  instructive  display),  but  I  am 


UTILITY      OF      BOXING.  263 

bold  to  risk  the  opinion,  that  a  blackguard  is  more  likel)-- 
to  acquire  a  sense  of  justice  and  fairness  there,  than  at 
a  love-feast  in  the  recesses  of  Methodism. 

In  fact,  it  is  to  pugilistic  schools,  and  their  displays,  that 
we  owe  '  the  whole  of  that  noble  system  of  ethics,  or  fair 
pla}',  which  distinguishes  and  elevates  our  commonalty, 
and  which  slern  and  impartial  reason  herself  must  hail 
as  one  of  the  glories  of  Britain.'  Hence  it  is  that,  in 
regular  combats,  may  be  witnessed  the  most  noble  forbear- 
ance, in  one  or  other,  or  both  of  the  contending  parties — 
a  forbearance  which  would  do  honor  to  combats  of  anoth- 
er rank. 

To  those  who  decline  boxing  as  vulgar,  its  advocates 
sarcastically  reply; — There  can  be  no  objection  to  restrict 
boxing  to  the  vulgar  and  inferior  classes  of  society,  where 
sensibility  and  resentments  cannot  be  supposed  so  refined) 
so  rational,  and  so  permanent,  as  those  of  their  high-born 
and  educated  superiors.  In  regard  to  them,  we  submis- 
sively give  our  assent  tothe indispensable  use  of  the  pis- 
tol and  small  sword,  and  to  the  unquestionable  rationality 
of  affording  to  that  man  who  has  injured  another  in  the 
highest  degree,  the  opportuniiy  of  conferring  on  him  the 
inferior  injury  of  depriving  him  of  life. 

There  is  another  view  of  this  subject  which  deserves 
serious  consideration. 

Though  agriculture,  manufactures,  commerce,  the  arts 
and  sciences,  constitute  the  best  pursuits  of  human  life, 
yet  a  nation  exclusively  devoted  to  these,  and  without  the 
means  of  defence,  would  exist  in  an  uncertain,  dependant 
or  slavish  state.    From  the  inhabitants  of  every  country, 


264  BOXING. 

therefore  a  portion  is  selected,  whose  profession  and  duty 
it  must  be  to  defend  the  liberties  and  secure  the  property 
of  the  whole.  Hence  the  military  and  naval  professions- 
But,  in  order  to  fit  the  people  for  these,  and  to  prevent  the 
too  general  indulgence  of  effeminacy  and  dread  of  en- 
terprize,it  is  necessary  to  encourage  the  manly  and  ath- 
letic sports  and  contests,  which  invigorate  the  human 
frame,  inspire  contempt  of  personal  suffering,  and  enable 
men  to  defend  that  which  they  could  not  otherwise  enjoy. 
There  can  in  fact  be  no  better  preparation  for  making 
effective  combatants  in  our  army  and  naxj  than  the  na- 
tional practice  of  boxing.  '  It  teaches  a  man  to  look  his 
adversary  in  the  face  while  fighting ;  to  bear  the  threat- 
ening looks  and  fierce  assaults  of  an  antagonist  without 
flinching;  to  watch  and  parry  his  intended  blow;  to  re- 
turn it  with  quickness,  and  follow  it  up  with  resolution 
and  effect ;  it  habituates  him  to  sustain  his  courage  under 
bodily  suffering ;  and  when  the  conflict  has  ceased,  to  treat 
his  enemy  with  humanity.  The  feeling  of  superiority 
which  the  practice  of  boxing  gives  an  Englishman  over 
a  foreigner  in  private  quarrel,  is  carried  into  the  field  of 
battle ;  for  the  boxer  cannot  think  of  turning  his  back  on 
a  foe  whom  he  has  always  deemed  his  inferior  in  combat. 
To  this  feeling,  and  to  the  habit  of  fighting  from  boyhood 
hand  to  hand  and  face  to  face,  more  even  than  to  superior 
bodily  strength  and  courage,  may  be  reasonably  attributed 
the  superiority  of  English  soldiers  at  the  charge,  of  Eng- 
lish sailors  in  the  act  of  boarding.' 


ART    ESSENTIAL    IN     BOXING.  265 


PHYSICAL     QUALITIES     OF    BOXERS. 

The  frames  of  boxers  in  general  differ,  in  appearance, 
from  those  of  most  other  men.  They  are  formed  both  for 
active  exertion  and  for  the  endurance  of  suffering  in  a  se- 
vere degree.  It  might  indeed  almost  be  said  of  boxers,as  it 
has  been  of  poets,  that  a  man  must  be  born  one.  Certainly, 
if  he  be  not  in  possession  of  certain  physical  peculiarities, 
he  cannot  excel  in  his  art. 

The  eyes  of  professed  pugilists  are  generally  small. 
Their  necks  are  large.  Their  arms  are  muscular,  with 
strong,  well-turned  shoulders.  Their  chests  are  in  general 
expanded ;  and  some  of  their  backs  and  loins  not  only  ex- 
hibit an  unusual  degree  of  strength,  but  a  great  portion  of 
anatomical  beauty.  The  hips,  thighs,  and  legs  of  a  few 
are  remarkable  for  symmetry.  When  boxers  donot  stand 
firm  on  their  legs,  and  are  thin  about  the  loins,  it  indicates 
weakness  ;  and  where  anything  like  struggling  occurs  in 
a  contest,  they  frequently  lose  the  battle  from  want  of 
strength.  The  hands  of  pugilists,  in  general  are  large,  and 
should  be  firm. 


ART     ESSENTIAL     IN    BOXING. 

Many  intelligent  persons  have  been  of  opinion  that 
boxing  depends  more  on  strength  than  the  use  of  the  sword ; 
but  yet  it  is  certain  that  art  is  here  still  more  important 
than  strength.  Strength,  undoubtedly,  is  what  the  boxer 
ought  to  set  out  with — it  is  the  fundamental  quality :  but 
without  art  he  will  have  little  success.    A  less  degree  of 


266  BOXING. 

art  will  prove  far  more  effective  than  a  considerably  grea- 
ter degree  ofstrength.  Deficiency  of  strength  may  be  great- 
ly supplied  by  art ;  want  of  art  will  have  but  heavy  and  un- 
wieldy succor  from  strength. 

The  strength  of  man  chiefly  consists  of  the  power  of  his 
muscles.  These,  with  the  bones,  form  the  strings  and 
levers  which  execute  the  different  motions  of  the  body. 
Now,  by  art,  a  man  may  give  additional  force  to  them,  as 
will  be  shewn  in  the  sequel. 


posrrsox    of    the    bodv. 

The  postion  of  the  body  is  of  the  first  and  greatest  con- 
sequence in  boxing.  Here,  the  centre  of  gravity  must  be 
well  considered ;  for  if,  conformably  with  that,  the  weight 
of  the  body  be  adjusted,  and  its  proper  equilibrium  pre- 
served, it  will  stand  much  firmer  against  opposing  force. 

This,  in  the  first  place,  depends  upon  a  proper  distance 
between  the  legs,  which  is,  therefore,  the  first  thing  a 
boxer  ought  to  regard.  Without  it,  indeed,  all  his  efforts 
will  prove  abortive. 

In  order,  then,  to  obtain  the  true  position,  the  left  leg 
must  be  advanced  some  distance  before  the  right. 

This  places  the  left  side  towards  the  adversary ;  and  it 
is  the  true  position  for  the  right-handed  man,  in  order 
that,  after  having  stopped  the  blow  with  his  left  arm, 
which  is  a  kind  of  buckler  to  him,  he  may  have  equal 
readiness  and  greater  power  of  stepping  in  with  his  right- 
hand's  returning  blow. 

In  this  position,  then,  he  ought  to  preserve  a  considera- 


MODE     OF     STRIKING.  267 

ble  but  yet  easy  flexure  of  the  left-knee,  that  his  advances 
and  retreats  may  be  the  quicker. 

By  this  flexure,  his  body  is  brought  so  far  forward  as  to 
have  a  proper  inclination  over  the  left  thigh,  so  that  his 
face  makes  a  perpendicular  or  straight  line  with  the  left- 
knee  ;  while  the  right  leg  and  thigh,  in  a  slanting  line 
strongly  prop  up  the  whole  body  from  behind. 

In  this  attitude,  the  whole  body  inclines  forward,  so 
that  we  find,  from  the  outside  of  the  right  ancle  to  the 
shoulder,  is  formed  a  straight  but  inclined  line ;  and  this  is 
the  strongest  position  a  man  can  contrive.  It  is  such  as 
we  generally  use  in  forcing  doors,  pushing  forward  any 
weight,  or  resisting  strength  ;  for,  while  we  have  all  the 
direct  force  of  the  right  side,  the  muscles  of  the  left  side, 
which  bend  the  body  gently  forward,  bring  over  the  left 
thigh  the  gravitating  part,  which  thus  augments  the  force. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  body  were  held  erect  or  upright, 
a  moderate  blow  on  the  head  or  breast  would  overset  it. 

Thus,  then,  the  body  -is  supported  against  all  violent 
efforts.  But  this  is  not  all :  the  additional  strength  ac- 
quired by  this  equilibrium  is  greatly  to  the  purpose,  as 
will  soon  be  seen. 


MODE     OF     STRIKING. 

The  body,  by  the  position  now  described,  has  the  mus- 
cles of  the  right  side  partly  relaxed  and  partly  contracted 
whilst  those  of  the  left  are  altogether  in  a  state  of  con- 
traction ;  but  the  reserve  made  of  the  muscles  of  the  right 
side  affords  so  many  springs  and  levers  to  be  employed  at 
discretion. 


268  BOXING. 

Now,  the  nearer,  as  already  said,  that  a  man  brings  his 
body  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  the  truer  line  of  direction 
will  these  and  all  his  other  muscles  act  in,  and  consequent- 
ly with  greater  force. 

By  thus  delivering  up  the  power  to  the  muscles  of  the 
leftside,  which  in  a  strong  contraction,  brings  the  body 
quicker  forward,  the  motion  communicated  is  so  strong, 
that,  if  the  hand  at  that  moment  be  firmly  shut,  and  the 
blow  at  the  same  instant  pushed  forward,  in  a  straight 
line  with  the  moving  body,  the  shock  given  by  the  stroke 
will  be  able  to  overcome  a  force,  not  thus  artfully  con- 
trived, twenty  times  as  great. 

Thus  is  explained  the  manner  in  which  it  is  in  our 
power  to  give  additional  strength  and  force  to  our  bodies^ 
so  as  to  render  us  far  superior  to  men  of  more  natural 
strength,  not  seconded  by  art. 

If  a  man,  then,  design  to  strike  a  hard  blow,  let  him  shut 
hia  fist  as  firmly  as  possible ;  for  the  power  of  his  arm  will 
then  be  considerably  greater  than  if  but  slightly  closed, 
and  the  velocity  of  his  blow  will  be  greatly  augmented  by 
it. 

The  muscles  which  give  this  additional  force  to  the 
arm,  in  shutting  the  fist,  are  the  flexors  of  the  fingers,  the 
extensors  being  the  opposite  muscles,  as  they  open  or  ex. 
pand  the  same. 

In  striking,  howe>rer,  or  using  any  violent  eftbrt  with 
the  hands,  these  different  orders  of  muscles  contribute  to 
the  same  action.  Thus,  if  any  one  close  the  left  hand 
forcibly,  and  clap  his  right  hand  upon  the  iCft  arm,  he  will 
feel  that  all  the  muscles  of  it  swell  more  or  less. 


MOST     EFFECTIVE      BLOWS.  269 

Hence  it  follows,  that  muscles,  calculated  for  different 
offices,  yet  aid  each  other  in  great  efforts.  This  is  of 
much  advantage  toward  that  artificial  force  in  boxing 
which  beats  much  superior  strength  where  art  is  wanting. 


MOST  EFFECTIVE   BLOWS. 

We  may  now  consider  what  are  the  most  hurtful  blows, 
and  such  as,  consequently,  contribute  most  to  gaining  a 
battle.  This  is  a  most  important  consideration  to  pugil- 
ists, and  claims  their  particular  attention. 

Very  few  of  those  who  fight  know  why  a  blow  on  any 
particular  part  has  such  effects;  yet,  by  experience,  they 
know  it  has  these  effects,  and  by  them  they  are  directed 
to  the  proper  parts — under  the  ear,  between  the  eye-brows, 
and  about  the  stomach. 

The  blow  under  the  ear  is  considered  tobeas  dangerous 
as  any  that  is  given,  if  it  light  between  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw  and  the  neck :  because,  in  this  part,  there  are 
two  kinds  of  blood-vessels,  arteries  and  veins,  of  great 
size,  the  former  bringing  blood  immediately  from  the 
heart  to  the  head,  and  the  latter  carrying  it  immediately 
back. 

NoM'',  it  is  evident,  that  if  a  man  receive  a  blow  on  these 
vessels,  part  of  the  blood  proceeding  from  the  heart  to  the 
head  must  be  forced  back,  whilst  the  other  part  is  driven 
forcibly  to  the  head ;  and  in  the  same  manner,  part  of 
the  blood  returning  from  the  head  to  the  heart  must  be 
forced  into  the  latter,  whilst  the  other  is  driven  forcibly  to 
the  head. 

Thus,  the  blood-vessels  are  immediately  overcharged 


270  BOXING. 

and  the  sinuses  of  the  brain  overloaded.  The  man,  ac- 
cordingly, loses  sensation,  and  the  blood  often  runs  from 
his  ears,  mouth,  and  nose,  owing  to  the  quantity  forced 
with  impetuosity  into  the  smaller  vessels,  the  coats  of 
which  being  too  tender  to  resist  such  a  charge,  instantly 
break;  aod  cause  the  effusion  of  blood  wherever  the  su- 
perficial skin  is  thinest. 

This  is  not  all,  the  heart,  being  overcharged  with  the 
blood  forced  back  on  the  succeeding  blood  ascending  from 
its  left  ventricle,  stops  its  progress  ;  whilst  the  blood  re- 
turning from  the  head  is  violently  pushed  into  its  right 
auricle,  so  that  the  heart  labors  under  a  violent  surcharge 
of  blood,  which  however  goes  off  as  the  parts  recover 
themselves,  and  are  able  to  push  the  blood  onward. 

Blows  between  the  eye-brows  contribute  greatly  to  vic- 
tory. Thispart  being  contused  between  two  hard  bodies, 
viz.  the  fist  and  os  frontis,  there  ensues  a  violent  echymo- 
sis,  or  extravasation  of  blood,  which  falls  immediately 
into  the  eyelids,  and  they  being  of  a  lax  texture,  incapa- 
ble of  resisting  this  influx  of  blood,  swell  almost  instan- 
taneously, and  this  intumescence  soon  obstructs  the  sight. 
The  man  thus  artfully  hoodwinked,  is  consequently  beat 
about  at  his  adversary's  discretion. 

Blows  on  the  stomach  are  very  hurtful,  as  the  great  ar- 
tery, called  aorta,  the  diaphragm  or  midriff,  and  the  lungs, 
share  in  the  injury. 

It  is  therefore,  recommended  to  those  who  box,  never 
to  charge  their  stomachs  with  much  food,  on  the  day  of 
combat.  By  observing  this  precaution,  they  will  avoid 
the  extraordinary  compression  of  the  descending  aorta, 


BOTTOM.  271 

and,  in  a  great  measure,  preserve  the  stomach  itself  from 
the  blows  to  which  it  must  be  the  more  exposed,  whendis- 
tended  with  food,  and  the  consequence  of  which  must  be 
a  vomiting  of  blood,  caused  by  the  rupture  of  blood-ves- 
sels, whereas,  the  empty  stomach,  yielding  to  the  blow,  is 
much  less  eifected  by  it.  Hence  it  is  recommended  rath- 
er to  take  some  slight  stimulant  into  the  comparatively 
empty  stomach,  which  by  its  exciting  the  fibres,  may  con- 
tract it  into  smaller  compass. 

The  injury  which  the  diaphragm  suffers  from  blows 
under  the  breast-bone,  is  considerable,  because  it  is  there- 
by brought  into  a  strong  convulsive  state,  which  produces 
pain.  Thus  excited,  the  diaphragm  also  lessens  the  cav- 
ity of  the  thorax,  whereby  the  lungs  are,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, deprived  of  their  liberty,  and  the  quantity  of  air  re- 
tained in  them  is  so  forcibly  pushed  from  them,  that  it 
causes  a  difficulty  of  respiration,  which  cannot  be  over- 
come till  the  convulsive  motion  of  the  diaphragm  ceases. 

The  boxer  may  render  blows  on  this  part  in  some  de- 
gree less  hurtful,  by  drawing  in  the  belly,  holding  the 
breath,  and  bending  the  thorax,  or  upper  part  of  the  chest 
over  the  navel,  when  the  stroke  is  coming. 


Strength  and  art  have  been  both  mentioned  as  the  prin- 
cipal requisites  for  a  boxer ;  but  there  is  another,  which  is 
equally  necessary,  and  without  which  no  pugilist  can  be 
complete.    This  is  denominated  bottom. 

In  constituting  bottom,  there  are  required  two  things. 


273  BOXING. 

wind,  and  spirit  or  courage.  Wind,  indeed,  may  be  ob- 
tained by  a  proper  attention  to  diet  and  exercise ;  but  it  is 
spirit  that  keeps  the  boxer  upon  his  legs.  Without  this 
substantial  requisite,  both  art  and  strength  will  be  of  little 
avail. 


The  following  rules  are  nearly  those  which  were  drawn 
up  by  Mr,Broughton,and  which  continue  to  be  generally 
acted  upon : 

1.  That  a  square  of  a  yard  in  extent  be  chalked  in  the 
middle  of  the  stage ;  and  at  every  fresh  set-to,  after  a  fall 
or  being  parted  from  the  rails,  each  second  is  to  bring  his 
man  to  the  side  of  the  square,  and  place  him  opposite  to 
the  other,  and  till  they  are  fairly  set-to  at  the  lines,  it  shall 
not  be  lawful  for  one  to  strike  the  other. 

2.  That,  in  every  main  battle,  as  soon  as  the  men  are 
stripped,  no  person  whatever  shall  be  upon  the  stage,  ex- 
cept the  principals  and  their  seconds;  the  same  rule  being 
to  be  observed  in  by-battles,  except  that  in  the  latter,  a 
gentleman  is  allowed  to  be  upon  the  stage  to  keep  deco- 
rum, provided  always  he  do  not  interfere  in  the  battle  ; 
and  whoever  presumes  to  infringe  these  rules  is  to  be 
turned  immediately  out  of  the  place. 

3.  That  no  champion  is  to  be  deemed  beaten,  unless  he 
fail  in  coming,  or  being  brought  up  by  his  second,  to  the 
side  of  the  square,  in  the  limited  time  of  half  a  minute  ; 
or  that  his  own  second  declares  him  beaten ;  but  no  second 
is  to  be  allowed  to  ask  his  man's  adversary  any  questions, 
or  advise  him  to  give  up. 


TRAINING.  273 

4.  That,  to  prevent  disputes  in  every  main  battle,  the 
principals  shall,  on  coming  on  the  stage,  choose,  from 
among  the  gentlemen  present,  two  umpires,  who  shall 
absolutely  decide  all  disputes  that  may  arise  about  the 
battle ;  and,  if  the  two  umpires  cannot  agree,  the  said- 
umpires  are  to  choose  a  third,  who  is  to  determine  it. 

5.  That  no  person  is  to  hit  his  adversary  when  he  is 
down,  or  seize  him  by  the  ham,  the  breeches,  or  any  part 
below  the  waist ;  a  man  on  his  knees  being  to  be  reck- 
oned down. 

These  rules  form  the  code  of  boxing. 


TRAINING. 

This  is  here  properly  an  appendix  to  various  exercises 
already  described. 

The  art  of  training  for  athletic  exercises  or  laborious 
exertions,  consists  in  purifying  the  body  and  strengthen- 
ing its  powers,  by  certain  processes,  which  are  now  to  be 
described. 

The  advantages  of  training,  however,  are  not  confined 
to  pedestrians,  wrestlers,  or  pugilists :  they  extend  to  ev- 
ery one ;  for,  were  training  generally  introduced,  instead 
of  medicine,  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  diseases,  its 
beneficial  consequences  would  assuredly  prolong  life,  and 
promote  its  happiness. 

Every  physiologist  knows  that  all  the  parts  which  com- 
pose the  human  body— solids  as  well  as  liquids — are  suc- 
cessively absorbed  and  deposited.    Hence  ensues  a  per- 
18 


274  TRAINING. 

petual  renovation  of  them  regulated  by  the  nature  of  our 
food  and  general  habits. 

The  health,  indeed,  of  all  the  parts,  and  the  soundness 
of  their  structure,  depend  on  this  perpetual  absorption 
and  renovation. 

Now,  nothing  so  effectually  as  exercise  excites  at  once 
absorption  and  secretion.  It  accordingly  promotes  all  the 
vital  functions  without  hurrying  them,  renovates  all  the 
parts,  and  preserves  them  apt  and  fit  for  their  offices. 

It  follows,  then,  that  health,  vigor,  and  activity,  chiefly 
depend  upon  exersise  and  regimen,  or,  in  other  words, 
upon  the  observance  of  those  rules  which  constitute  the 
theory  of  training. 

The  effect  has  accordingly  corresponded  with  the 
cause  assigned  in  this  view  of  the  subject,  in  every  in- 
stance where  training  has  been  adopted  ;  and  although  it 
is  not  commonly  resorted  to  as  the  means  of  restoring  in- 
valids to  health,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it 
would  prove  effectual  in  curing  many  obstinate  diseases, 
such  as  bilious  complaints,  obesity,  gout,  rheumatism,  &c. 

The  ancients  entertained  this  opinion. — They  were, 
says  a  popular  writer  on  medicine,  by  no  means  unac- 
quainted with,  or  inattentive  to,  these  instruments  of  med- 
icine, although  modern  practitioners  appear  to  have  no 
idea  of  removing  disease,  or  restoring  health,  but  by  pour- 
ing drugs  into  the  stomach. — Herudicus  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  applied  the  exercises  and  regimen  of 
the  gymnasium  to  the  removal  of  disease,  or  the  mainte- 


TRAINING.  275 

nance  of  health.  Among  the  Romans,  Asclepiades  carried 
this  so  far,  that  he  is  said,  by  Celsus,  almost  to  have  ban- 
ished the  use  of  internal  remedies  from  his  practice.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  various  modes  of  exercise  and  gesta- 
tion, in  Rome.— In  his  own  person,  he  afforded  an  excel- 
lent example  of  the  wisdom  of  his  rules,  and  the  propriety 
of  his  regimen.  Pliny  tells  us  that,  in  early  life,  he  made 
a  public  profession,  that  he  would  agree  to  forfeit  all  pre- 
tensions to  the  name  of  physician,  should  he  ever  suffer 
from  sickness,  or  die  but  of  old  age ;  and,  what  is  more  ex- 
traordinary, he  fulfilled  his  promise  for  he  lived  upwards 
of  a  century,  and  at  last  was  killed  by  a  fall  down  stairs. 

As  to  the  locomotive  system,  modern  experience  suffi- 
ciently proves  that  exercise  is  the  most  powerful  strength- 
ener  of  the  muscles,  and  of  every  part  on  which  activity 
depends. 

As  to  the  vital  system,  training,  we  are  told,  always  ap- 
pears to  benefit  the  state  of  the  lungs.  Indeed,  one  of  its 
most  striking  effects  is  to  improve  the  wind  :  that  is,  to 
enable  a  man  to  draw  a  larger  inspiration,  and  to  hold  his 
breath  longer.  v 

As  to  the  intellectual  system,  Sir  J.  Sinclair  observes 
that,  by  training,  the  mental  faculties  are  also  improved ; 
the  attention  being  more  ready,  and  the  perception  more 
acute,  owing  probably  to  the  clearness  of  the  stomach,  and 
better  digestion. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  admitted,  that  the  most  beneficial 
consequences  to  general  health  arise  from  training. 

The  simplicity  of  the  rales  of  training  is  assuredly  a 


276  TRAINING. 

great  recommendation  to  a  trial  of  the  experiment.  The 
whole  process  may  be  resoh^ed  into  the  following  princi- 
ples : — 1st,  the  evacuating,  which  cleanses  the  stomach 
and  intestines ;— 2d,  the  sweating,  which  takes  off  the  su- 
perfluities of  fat  and  humors  ; — 3d,  the  daily  course  of  ex. 
ercise,  which  improves  the  wind  and  strengthens  the  mus- 
cles;— and,  lastly,  the  regimen  which  nourishes  and  in- 
vigorates the  body. 

To  those  who  are  to  engage  in  corporeal  exercises  be- 
yond their  ordinary  powers,  training  is  indispensably  ne- 
cessary. Pedestrians,  therefore,  M'ho  are  matched  either 
against  others  or  against  time,  and  pugilists,  who  engage 
to  fight,  must  undergo  the  training  process  before  they 
contend.  The  issue  of  the  contest,  if  their  powers  be 
nearly  equal,  will,  in  a  great  measure,  depend  upon  their 
relative  condition,  as  effected  by  training,  at  the  hour  of 
trial. 

Training  was  known  to  the  ancients,  who  paid  much 
attention  to  the  means  of  augmenting  corporeal  vigor  and 
activity.  Accordingly,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
certain  rules  of  exercise  and  rigimen  were  prescribed  to 
the  candidates  for  gymnastic  celebrity. 

We  are  assured,  that,  among  the  Greeks,  previously  to 
the  solemn  contests  at  the  public  games,  the  strictest  tem_ 
perance,  sobriety,  and  regularity  in  living,  were  indispen- 
sably requisite.  The  candidates  were,  at  the  same  time, 
subjected  to  daily  exercise  in  the  gymnasium,  which  con- 
tinued during  ten  months  and  whicli,  with  ihe  prescibed 
regimen,  constituted  the  preparatory  training  adopted  by 
the  athletoe  of  Greece. 


I 


TRAINING.  277 

Among  the  Romans,  the  exercises  of  the  palaestra  de- 
generated from  the  rank  of  a  liberal  art,  and  became  a 
profession,  which  was  embraced  only  by  the  lowest  o^ 
mankind ;  the  exhibitions  of  the  gladiators  being  bloody 
and  ferocious  spectacles,  which  evinced  the  barbarous  taste 
of  the  people.  The  combatants,  however,  were  regularly 
trained  by  proper  exercise,  and  a  strict  observance  of  re- 
gimen. 

Among  them,  pure  and  salubrious  air  was  deemed  a 
chief  requisite ;  and,  accordingly,  the  principal  schools  of 
their  achletae  were  established  at  Capua  and  Ravenna,  the 
most  healthy  places  in  Italy, 

Previously  to  entering  on  this  regimen,  the  athletae 
were  subjected  to  the  evacuating  process,  by  means  of 
emetics,  which  they  preferred  to  purgatives. 

In  the  more  early  stages  of  training,  their  diet  consisted 
of  dried  figs,  new  cheese,  and  boiled  grain.  Afterwards 
animal  food  was  introduced  as  a  part  of  the  athletic  regi- 
men, and  pork  was  preferred  to  any  other.  Galen,  in- 
deed, asserts,  that  pork  contains  more  real  nutriment  than 
flesh  of  any  other  kind  which  is  used  as  food  by  man :  this 
fact,  he  adds,  is  decidedly  proved  by  the  example  of  the 
athletae,  who,  if  they  lived  but  for  one  day  on  any  other 
kind  of  food,  found  iheir  vigour  manifestly  impaired  the 
next. 

The  preference  given  to  pork,  by  the  ancients,  does  not 
correspond  with  the  practice  of  modern  trainers,  who  en- 
tirely reject  it  in  their  regimen:  but,  in  the  manner  of 
preparing  the  food,  they  exactly  agree,  roasting  or  broiling 


278  TRAINING. 

beingby  both  preferred  to  boiling ;  and  bread unfermented, 
to  that  prepared  by  leaven, 

A  very  small  quantity  of  liquid  was  allowed  to  the 
athletae  ;  and  this  was  principally  water. 

The  athletae  exercised  in  the  open  air,  and  became 
familiarized,  by  habit,  to  every  change  of  the  weather,  the 
vicissitudes  of  which  soon  ceased  to  effect  them. 

To  exercise  their  patience, and  accustom  them  to  bear 
pain  without  flinching,  they  were  occasionally  flogged  on 
the  back  with  the  branches  of  a  kind  of  rhododendron,  till 
the  blood  flowed.  By  diminishing  the  quantity  of  the 
circulating  liquid,  this  rough  kind  of  cupping  was  also 
considered  salutary,  as  obviating  the  tendency  to  plethora 
or  redundancy  of  blood,  to  which  they  were  peculiarly 
liable — a  strong  proof,  by-the-bye,  of  the  nourishing  quali- 
ties of  their  food,  &c. 

When  the  daily  exercises  of  the  Athletce,  were  finished 
they  were  refreshed  by  immersion  in  a  tepid  bath,  where 
the  perspiration  and  sordes — scurf,  pustles,  or  filthy  ad- 
hesions, were  carefully  removed  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  by  the  use  of  the  strygil.*  The  skin  was  then  dili- 
gently rubbed  dry,  and  again  anointed  with  oil.  If  thirsty, 
they  were  permitted  to  drink  a  small  quantity  of  warm 
water.  They  then  took  their  principal  repast,  after  which 
they  used  no  more  exercise  that  day. — They  occasionally 
also  went  into  the  cold  bath  in  the  morning. 

•  For  this  instrument,  rough  coarse  clothes  are  adopted,  but  not 
with  advantage. 


TRAINING,  271) 

They  were  permitted  to  sleep  as  many  hours  as  tliey 
chose;  and  great  increase  of  vigor,  as  well  as  of  bulk, 
was  supposed  to  be  derived  from  long  continued  and 
sound  repose.* 

The  sexual  intercourse  was  strictly  prohibited. 

The  manner  of  training  among  the  ancients  bears  some 
resemblance  to  that  practised  by  the  moderns.  Perhaps 
it  is  because  their  mode  of  living  and  general  habits 
were  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  present  age, 
that  a  difference  of  treatment  is  now  required  to  produce 
the  same  effects. 

The  great  object  of  training,  for  running  or  boxing- 
matches,  is  to  increase  the  muscular  strength,  and  to  im- 
prove the  free  action  of  the  lungs,  or  wind,  of  the  person 
subjected  to  the  process. 

Seeing  that  the  human  body  is  so  capable  of  being  al- 
tered and  renovated,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  art  of 
training  should  be  carried  to  a  degree  of  perfection  almost 
incredible;  and  that  by  certain  processes,  the  muscular 
power,  the  breath  (or  wind),  and  the  courage  of  man, 
should  be  so  greatly  improved  as  to  enable  him  to  perform 
the  most  severe  or  laborious  undertakings. 

That  such  effects  have  been  produced  is  unquestiona- 
ble; they  are  fully  exemplified  in  the  astonishing  exploits 
of  our  most  celebrated  pedestrians  and  pugilists,  which 
are  the  infallible  results  of  such  preparatory  discipline. 

The  skilful  trainer  attends  to  the  state  of  the  bowels, 


*  Little  sleep  is  now  prescribed ;  but  its  quan'  ity  should  depend  upon 
circumstances  of  fatigue,  &c. 


,aBU  TRAINING. 

the  lungs,  and  the  skin  ;  and  he  uses  such  means  as  will 
reduce  the  fat,  and,  at  the  same  time,  invigorate  the  mus- 
cular fibre.  The  patient  is  purged  by  drastic  medicines  • 
he  is  sweated  by  walking  under  a  load  of  clothes,  and  by 
lying  between  feather-beds  ;  and  his  limbs  are  roughly 
rubbed.  His  diet  is  beef  or  mutton;  his  drink  strong  ale. 
He  is  gradually  inured  to  exercise  by  repeated  trials  in 
walking  and  running. 

By  extenuating  the  fat,  emptying  the  cellular  substance, 
hardening  the  muscular  fibre,  and  improving  the  bre  ath, 
a  man  of  the  ordinary  frame  may  be  made  to  fight  for 
one  hour,  with  the  utmost  exertion  of  strength  and  cour- 
age, or  to  gooverone  hundred  miles  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  most  effectual  process  for  training  is  that  practised 
by  Capt.  Barclay,  which  has  not  only  been  sanctioned  by 
professional  men,  but  has  met  with  the  unqualified  ap- 
probation of  amateurs.  We  are  here,  therefore,  almost 
entirely  indebted  to  it  for  details. 

Accordingto  this  method,  the  pedestrian,  who  maybe 
supposed  in  tolerable  condition,  enters  upon  his  training 
with  a  regular  course  of  physic,  which  consists  of  three 
doses.  Glauber's  salts  are  generally  preferred ;  and  from 
one  ounce  and  a  half  to  two  ounces  are  taken  each  time, 
with  an  interval  of  four  days  between  each  dose. 

After  having  gone  through  the  course  of  physic,  he 
commences  his  regular  exercise,  which  is  gradually  in- 
creased as  he  proceeds  in  the  training. 

When  the  object  in  view  is  the  accomplishment  of  a 
pedestrian  match,  his  regular  exercise  may  be  from  twen- 
ty to  twenty-four  miles  a  day. 


TRAINING,  281 

He  must  rise  at  five  in  the  morning,  run  half  a  mile  at 
the  top  of  his  speed  up-hill,  and  then  walk  six  miles  at  a 
moderate  pace,  coming  in  aboutseven  to  breakfast,  which 
should  consist  of  beef-steaks  or  mutton-chops  under-done; 
with  stale  bread  and  old  beer. 

After  breakfast,  he  must  again  walk  six  miles  at  a  mod- 
erate pace,  and  at  twelve  lie  down  in  bed  without  his 
clothes  for  half  an  hour. 

On  getting  up,  he  must  walk  four  miles,  and  return  by 
four  to  dinner,  which  should  also  be  beef-steaks  or  mut- 
ton-chops, with  bread  and  beer,  as  at  breakfast. 

Immediately  after  dinner,  he  must  resume  his  exercise, 
by  running  half  a  mile  at  the  top  of  his  speed,  and  walk- 
ing six  miles  at  a  moderate  pace. 

He  takes  no  more  exercise  for  that  day,  but  retires  to 
bed  about  eight ;  and  next  morning  he  proceeds  in  the 
same  manner. 

Animal  diet,  it  will  be  observed,  is,  according  to  this 
system,  alone  prescribed,  and  beef  and  mutton  are  pre- 
ferred. 

All  fat  and  greasy  substances  are  prohibited,  as  they 
induce  bile,  and  consequently  injure  the  ^tomach.  The 
lean  of  meat  contains  more  nourishment  than  the  fat,  and 
in  every  case,  the  most  substantial  food  is  preferable  to 
any  other  kind. 

Fresh  meat  is  the  most  wholesome  and  nourishing. 
Salt,  spiceries,  and  all  kinds  of  seasonings,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  vinegar,  are  prohibited. 

The  lean,  then,  of  fat  beef  cooked  in  steaks,  with  very 
little  salt,  is  the  best ;  and  it  should  be  rather  under-done 


282  TRAINING. 

than  Otherwise.  Mutton  being  reckoned  easy  of  digestion, 
may  be  occasionally  given,  to  vary  the  diet  and  gratify 
the  taste.     The  legs  of  fowls  are  also  esteemed. 

It  is  preferable  to  have  the  meat  broiled,  as  much  of  its 
nutritive  qualities  is  lost  by  roasting  or  boiling.  It  ought 
to  be  dressed  so  as  to  remain  tender  and  juicy ,  for  it  is  by 
this  means  that  it  will  be  easily  digested  and  afford  most 
nourishment. 

Biscuit  and  stale  bread  are  the  only  preparations  of  ve- 
getable matter  which  are  permitted  to  be  given ;  and  eve- 
ry thing  inducing  flatulency  must  be  carefully  avoided. 

In  general,  the  quantity  of  aliment  is  not  limited  by  the 
trainer,  but  left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of  the  pedestri- 
an, whose  appetite  should  regulate  him  in  this  respect. 

With  respect  to  liquors,  they  must  always  be  taken  cold: 
and  home-brewed  beer,  old,  but  not  bottled,  is  the  best. — 
A  little  red  wine,  however,  may  be  given  to  those  who 
are  not  fond  of  malt  liquor ;  but  never  more  than  half  a 
pint  after  dinner. 

It  is  an  established  rule  to  avoid  liquids  as  much  as 
possible,  and  no  more  liquor  of  any  kind  is  allowed  to  be 
taken  than  isn^erely  requisite  to  quench  the  thirst. 

After  having  gone  on  in  this  regular  course  for  three  or 
four  weeks,  the  pedestrian  must  take  a  four-mile  sweat, 
which  is  produced  by  runing  four  miles  in  flannel,  at  the 
top  of  his  speed. 

Immediately  on  returning,  a  hot  liquor  is  prescribed,  in 
order  to  promote  the  perspiration,  and  of  this  he  must 
drink  one  English  pint.  It  is  termed  the  sweatingliquor, 
and  is  composed  of  one  ounce  of  caraway  seed,  half  an 


TRAINING.  283 

ounce  of  coriander  seed,  one  ounce  of  root-liquorice,  and 
half  an  ounce  of  sugar  candy,  mixed  with  two  bottles  of 
cider,  and  boiled  down  to  one  half. 

He  is  then  put  to  bed  in  his  flannels,  and  being  covered 
with  six  oreightpair  of  blankets  and  a  feather-bed,  must 
remain  in  this  state  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes, 
when  he  is  taken  out  and  rubbed  perfectly  dry. 

Being  then  well  wrapt  in  his  great  coal,  4ie  walks  out 
gently  for  two  miles,  and  returns  to  breakfast,  which,  on 
such  occasions,  should  consist  of  a  roasted  fowl.  He  af- 
terwards proceeds  with  his  usual  exercise. 
•  These  sweats  are  continued  weekly,  till  within  a  few 
days  of  the  performance  of  the  match,  or  in  other  words, 
he  must  undergo  three  or  four  of  these  operations. 

If  the  stomach  of  the  pedestrian  be  foul,  an  emetic  or 
two  must  be  given  about  a  week  before  the  conclusion  of 
the  training. 

He  is  now  supposed  to  be  in  the  highest  condition. 

Besides  his  usual  or  regular  exercise  a  person  under 
training  ought  to  employ  himself,  in  the  intervals, in  every 
kind  of  exertion,  which  tends  to  activity,  such  as  golf, 
cricket,  bowls,  throwing  quoits,  &c.  so  that,  during  the 
whole  day,  both  body  and  mind  may  be  constantly  occupi- 
ed. 

Although  the  chief  parts  of  the  training  system  depend 
upon  sweating,  exercise,  and  feeding,  yet  the]  object  to  be 
obtained,  by  the  pedestrian,  would  be  defeated,  if  these 
were  not'adjusted,  each  to  the  other  and  to  his  constitu- 
tion. 

The  trainer,  before  he  proceeds  to  apply  his  theory, 
should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  constitution  and 
habits  of  his  patient,  that  he  maybe  able  to  judge  how  far 


284  TRAINING. 

he  can  with  safety  carry  on  the  different  parts  of  the  pro- 
cess. 

The  nature  of  the  patient's  disposition  should  also  be 
known,  that  every  cause  of  irritation  may  be  avoided; 
for,  as  it  requires  great  patience  and  perseverance  to  un- 
dergo training,  every  expedient  to  soothe  and  encourage 
the  mind  should  be  adopted. 

The  skilful  trainer  will,  moreover,  constantly  study  the 
progress  of  his  art,  by  observing  the  effect  of  its  processes 
separately  and  in  combination. 

If  a  man  retain  his  health  and  spirits  during  the  process 
improve  in  wind,  and  increase  in  strength,  it  is  certain  that 
the  object  aimed  at  will  be  obtained.  But  if  otherwise,  it 
is  to  be  apprehended  that  some  defect  exists,  through  the 
unskilfulness  or  mismanagement  of  the  trainer,  which 
oughtinstantly  to  be  remedied,  by  such  alterations  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  may  demand. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in  many  instances  the 
trainer  must  be  guided  by  his  judgment,  and  that  no  fixed 
rules  of  management  can,  with  absolute  certainty,  be  de- 
pended upon,  for  producing  an  invariable  and  determin- 
ate result. 

In  general,  however,  it  maybe  calcuated,  that  the  known 
rules  are  adequate  to  the  purpose,  if  the  pedestrian  strictly 
adhere  to  them,  and  the  trainer  bestow  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  attention  t©  his  state  and  condition  during  the  pro- 
gess  of  training. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  any  percise  period  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  training  process,  as  it  depends,  upon  the  pre- 
vious condition  of  the  pedestrian:  but  from  two  to  three 


TRAINING.  285 

months,  in  most  cases,  will  be  sufficient,  especially  if  he 
be  in  tolerable  condition  at  the  commencement,  and  pos- 
sessed of  sufficient  perseverance  and  courage  to  submit 
cheerfully  to  the  privations  and  hardships  to  Avhich  he 
must  unavoidably  be  subjected. 

The  criterion  by  which  it  may  be  knoM^n  whether  a 
man  is  in  good  condition,  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  wheth- 
er he  has  been  properly  trained,  is  the  state  of  the  skin, 
wliich  becomes  smooth,  elastic  and  well-colored,  or  trans- 
parent ;  the  flesh  is  also  firm,  and  the  person  trained  feels 
himself  light,  and  full  of  spirits. 

Even,  however,  in  the  progress  of  the  training,  his  con- 
dition may  be  ascertained  by  the  effect  of  the  sweats,  which 
cease  to  reduce  his  weight ;  and  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  performs  one  mile  at  the  the  top  of  his  speed.— It  is 
as  difficult  to  run  a  mile  at  the  top  of  one's  speed  as  to  walk 
a  hundred  ;  and  therefore,  if  heperform  this  short  distance 
well,  it  may  be  concluded,  that  his  condition  is  perfect,  or 
that  he  has  derived  all  the  ad \^antages  which  can  possibly 
result  from  the  training  process. 


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